Second Sophistic

Historical Context and Definition

The Second Sophistic designates a broad movement in rhetoric and literary culture that flourished from roughly the mid‑1st to the mid‑3rd century CE in the Greek-speaking parts of the Roman Empire. The term was coined by the Greek writer Philostratus in his Lives of the Sophists, where he distinguished earlier, classical sophists (such as Gorgias and Protagoras) from a new generation of professional orators and teachers.

This “second” wave of sophistry was not a school of philosophy in the strict sense but a cultural and educational phenomenon centered on highly stylized public speaking, displays of erudition, and the imitation of classical Attic Greek prose. Under Roman rule, Greek elites used rhetorical performance to reaffirm their Hellenic identity while also integrating into imperial political and social structures.

Key Figures and Practices

The Second Sophistic was embodied in a network of professional rhetors, teachers, and public intellectuals who traveled between major cities such as Smyrna, Ephesus, Athens, Alexandria, and Rome. Among the most notable figures were:

• Dio Chrysostom (Dio of Prusa) – An orator and philosopher whose speeches range from political advice to moral exhortation, blending rhetorical flair with Stoic and Cynic influences.
• Aelius Aristides – Famous for his elaborate orations praising cities and the Roman Empire, as well as for his Sacred Tales, which document his intense religious and medical experiences.
• Herodes Atticus – A wealthy Athenian rhetor and benefactor, known for his public building projects and his role as a high-profile educator of the imperial elite.
• Lucian of Samosata – A satirist and master of prose dialogue whose works mock charlatan philosophers, religious credulity, and rhetorical excess itself.
• Philostratus – Author of Lives of the Sophists, which offers a semi-idealized history and self-portrait of the movement.

A central practice of the Second Sophistic was declamation, in which orators delivered set-piece speeches on fictional or historical themes. These might include courtroom speeches on imaginary legal cases, political addresses set in classical Athens, or encomia praising cities, gods, or emperors. Mastery of Atticism—the imitation of the language and style of classical Athenian authors such as Demosthenes and Lysias—was considered a hallmark of elite culture.

This emphasis on performance had strong social and political functions. Public speeches could articulate local pride, celebrate civic traditions, or honor the emperor, while also reinforcing the status of the orator and his city. Critics contend that the movement’s focus on form and display contributed to a certain formalism and archaism, privileging stylistic elegance over original philosophical or scientific inquiry. Proponents argue that these performances were subtle arenas in which Greek elites could negotiate identity and authority under Roman domination.

Relations to Philosophy and Education

Although not primarily philosophical, the Second Sophistic unfolded within a landscape shaped by Middle Platonism, Stoicism, Peripatetic thought, Epicureanism, and various skeptical tendencies. Philosophers and sophists often overlapped in role and training: many sophists had philosophical education, and some philosophers employed rhetorical techniques to reach broader audiences.

The movement was closely tied to paideia, the system of elite Greek education. Rhetorical training became the capstone of the curriculum, following instruction in grammar and basic literary study. Education in this period strongly emphasized:

• Memorization and imitation of canonical Greek texts
• Practice speeches on set themes
• Skill in extemporaneous speaking
• A polished, classicizing Greek style

In this environment, philosophy could be presented less as a technical discipline and more as a component of cultural formation. Works of Dio Chrysostom and others show that moral and political philosophy were frequently communicated in rhetorical forms—public speeches, consolations, and essays designed for educated lay audiences. Some historians of philosophy see this as diluting philosophical rigor; others note that it broadened the social reach of ethical and political reflection.

The relationship with earlier Sophists of the 5th century BCE was complex. The Second Sophistic consciously adopted the label “sophist” and certain practices—public display, training in argument, and focus on persuasion—yet typically avoided the earlier sophists’ reputation for radical relativism or paid instruction in contentious argument. Philostratus and later admirers portray the new sophists as guardians of classical culture rather than subversive intellectuals.

Legacy and Scholarly Debates

The Second Sophistic significantly shaped late antique and Byzantine conceptions of Greek literature, rhetoric, and education. Its classicizing tendencies influenced Christian authors such as the Cappadocian Fathers, who adopted and adapted Greek rhetorical techniques for theological and pastoral purposes, as well as later Byzantine rhetors and historians.

Modern scholarship debates the scope and interpretation of the movement:

• Some view the Second Sophistic as mainly a literary and rhetorical fashion, emphasizing its stylistic conservatism and distance from institutional power.
• Others interpret it as a key element of “Greek identity under Rome”, highlighting how performances reimagined Greek history and values within an imperial framework.
• Still others stress its role in the broader phenomenon of “Romanization” and cultural hybridity, seeing sophists as both participants in and shapers of Roman elite culture.

In contemporary studies of ancient philosophy, the Second Sophistic is often treated as part of the intellectual background against which later Platonism, early Christian thought, and Roman imperial philosophy developed. It illustrates how philosophical ideas circulated in a world where rhetoric, literature, religion, and civic life were deeply intertwined, and where the prestige of the classical Greek past remained a powerful organizing ideal for education and public discourse.