Maximus of Ephesus

Life and Historical Context

Maximus of Ephesus was a late antique Neoplatonic philosopher and theurgist, active in the mid-fourth century CE. Born in Ephesus around the beginning of the fourth century, he belonged to the broader movement of Iamblichean Neoplatonism, which combined Platonic metaphysics with elaborate religious and ritual practices. The main sources for his life are Eunapius of Sardis’ Lives of the Philosophers and Sophists and scattered references in Ammianus Marcellinus and later Christian authors. These sources are often partisan—either admiring or hostile—which makes reconstructing his life difficult and controversial among modern scholars.

Maximus appears to have received a philosophical education within the Eastern Neoplatonic milieu, influenced by the teachings of Iamblichus and his successors, who emphasized the integration of philosophy, ritual, and divination. Eunapius portrays Maximus as a charismatic and ambitious figure, known for his skill in theurgy (ritual practices aimed at uniting the soul with the gods) and for public displays of what were interpreted as miracles or magical feats.

By the 340s and 350s CE, Maximus had become a prominent intellectual in the Greek East and attracted students from across the empire. His reputation eventually drew the attention of Julian, the future Roman emperor, who was then a young member of the Constantinian dynasty, raised as a Christian but increasingly interested in traditional Hellenic religion and philosophy.

Philosophical and Religious Views

Maximus is best understood as a representative of ritual-centered Neoplatonism. Although none of his philosophical treatises survive with certainty, his outlook can be inferred from testimonies about his teaching and practice.

Central to his thought was the belief that rational contemplation alone is insufficient for attaining union with the divine. Building on Iamblichus, Maximus held that the gods transcend human intellect to such a degree that they can only be fully approached through theurgic rites: sacred invocations, sacrifices, and symbolic actions understood as vehicles for divine presence. In this framework:

• Philosophy clarifies the structure of reality—One, Intellect, Soul, and the cosmic hierarchy.
• Theurgy actualizes this understanding by ritually aligning the human soul with its higher, divine origins.
• Divination and prophecy are subordinate but important practices, oriented toward discerning the will of the gods for concrete decisions, including political matters.

He is frequently described as a “mage” or “magician”, terms that in late antiquity could be either pejorative or honorific. For his pagan admirers, he exemplified the philosopher-priest, one who combined speculative learning with effective ritual power. For many Christian critics, however, his activities were interpreted as illicit magic or demonic deception, and later polemical accounts attribute to him responsibility for harmful or politically subversive acts.

Some reports suggest that Maximus also engaged with Chaldean Oracles, Orphic traditions, and various prophetic texts that were influential in Neoplatonic circles. He seems to have taken seriously the idea that signs and omens—including visions and oracular responses—could and should guide imperial policy and personal decisions, if correctly interpreted within a philosophical-theological framework.

Role in Julian’s Reign and Death

Maximus’ historical significance is closely tied to his relationship with Julian (r. 361–363 CE), often called “the Apostate” because of his rejection of Christianity and attempt to restore pagan cults.

According to Eunapius, Julian, while still a young prince under Christian guardianship, secretly corresponded with Neoplatonic philosophers, among them Aedesius and his pupils. When Julian sought a more intensive initiation into the spiritual dimension of philosophy, he encountered Maximus of Ephesus, who impressed him with both intellectual discourse and striking ritual demonstrations. These experiences are depicted as crucial in Julian’s gradual abandonment of Christianity and his embrace of Hellenic polytheism.

Once Julian became emperor, he summoned Maximus to court and made him part of his close circle of advisors. Maximus’ functions appear to have included:

• Offering philosophical counsel congruent with Julian’s religious reforms.
• Conducting or overseeing sacrifices and theurgic rites.
• Participating in divinatory consultations concerning military campaigns and policy, particularly in relation to Julian’s Persian expedition.

Ancient accounts report that Maximus played a role in oracular inquiries about Julian’s fate and the outcome of the Persian campaign. Some traditions claim that he either reassured Julian of divine support or interpreted ambiguous signs in a favorable light. Scholars debate how much influence Maximus actually had over Julian’s strategic decisions; while pagan sources often highlight him as an inspired guide, later Christian narratives sometimes cast him as a dangerous flatterer or misleader.

After Julian’s death in 363 CE, in circumstances that were interpreted in various religious frameworks (as martyrdom, divine judgment, or tragic accident), Maximus’ position became precarious. The new regimes, which were more firmly Christian, regarded Julian’s pagan restoration projects—and those associated with them—with suspicion.

Maximus faced multiple trials over the following years. At one stage he was condemned under Emperor Jovian, though reportedly spared, and later he seems to have lived in relative obscurity for a time. Under Valens (r. 364–378 CE), however, the climate hardened against perceived magical and prophetic activities, especially when they intersected with political anxieties about imperial succession and potential usurpers.

In this context, Maximus was again arrested and tried, this time in connection with divinatory inquiries into who would succeed the reigning emperor. Such practices could be construed as treasonous under Roman law, since foretelling the emperor’s death or the rise of another ruler was treated as a political threat. Maximus was ultimately executed in 372 CE, reportedly by beheading. The exact charges and legal procedures remain unclear, but ancient authors generally associate his death with the broader Roman crackdown on magic, astrology, and divination in politically sensitive contexts.

Legacy and Reception

Maximus of Ephesus did not leave behind a clearly identifiable philosophical corpus, which has significantly constrained modern understanding of his doctrines in detail. His legacy instead survives primarily through narrative portrayals:

• Eunapius presents him as a heroic defender of Hellenic religion and a master of theurgy, whose charisma profoundly shaped Julian’s spiritual and political ideals.
• Ammianus Marcellinus, a more cautious observer, acknowledges Maximus’ presence at court but gives a less embellished account, emphasizing the broader circle of philosophers around Julian.
• Later Christian historians and theologians often use Maximus as a symbol of misguided paganism and dangerous magic, connecting him with the perceived failure of Julian’s pagan revival and with illicit divinatory practices.

Modern scholars view Maximus as an important, though somewhat elusive, figure in the final flourishing of pagan Neoplatonism within the imperial elite. He illustrates:

• The continuing prestige of philosophical schools in shaping religious and political identities in the fourth century.
• The contested status of ritual power—seen alternately as pious theurgy or criminal magic.
• The complex interactions between philosophy, religion, and imperial authority at a time when Christianity was becoming dominant in the Roman state.

Because of the scarcity of writings directly attributable to him, some researchers are cautious about assigning to Maximus specific doctrinal innovations, distinguishing between what might have been his personal system and what reflects the wider Iamblichean-Neoplatonic tradition. Nonetheless, his historical role as Julian’s theurgist and counselor, and his dramatic death in the anti-magic prosecutions of Valens, have secured Maximus of Ephesus a persistent place in discussions of late antique philosophy, theurgy, and the politics of religious change in the Roman Empire.