Simplicius of Cilicia

Life and Historical Context

Simplicius of Cilicia (fl. early–mid 6th century CE) was one of the last major representatives of late ancient Neoplatonism. Born in Cilicia, a region of southeastern Asia Minor, he was educated in the mature tradition of pagan philosophical schools at a time when Christianity had become the dominant religion of the Roman Empire.

Ancient reports indicate that Simplicius studied with Ammonius Hermiae in Alexandria, then with Damascius, the last scholarch of the Athenian Platonic Academy. This trajectory placed him squarely within the most sophisticated currents of late Neoplatonic thought. The closure of the Athenian philosophical schools by Emperor Justinian in 529 CE marked a crucial turning point. According to later sources, Simplicius was among a small group of philosophers who briefly sought refuge at the court of the Sasanian king Khosrow I in Persia. Their eventual return to the empire is sometimes linked to provisions in the “Perpetual Peace” treaty of 532, which allegedly guaranteed them religious freedom, though the historicity and details of this arrangement are debated.

After these events, Simplicius likely spent his remaining years working and teaching in some city of the Eastern Roman Empire, though the exact location is unknown. His extant writings show no direct polemic against Christianity; instead, he focuses on expounding and defending a pagan philosophical worldview through commentary on canonical texts, chiefly Aristotle and Epictetus. This makes him a pivotal figure for understanding the final phase of ancient Greek philosophy before its transformation in medieval Byzantine, Islamic, and Latin contexts.

Works and Commentary Method

Simplicius is best known for a series of extensive commentaries:

• On Aristotle’s Categories, Physics, On the Heavens, and On the Soul (though the On the Soul commentary is sometimes considered incomplete or of uncertain authorship).
• On Epictetus’ Encheiridion (Handbook), a compendium of Stoic ethical doctrine.

These commentaries follow the late antique practice of line‑by‑line exegesis. Simplicius typically:

1. Summarizes Aristotle’s text.
2. Raises questions or objections (including from earlier commentators, skeptics, or Christian critics).
3. Offers a detailed solution that integrates Aristotelian doctrine into a Neoplatonic framework.

A notable feature of his method is the historical and doxographical richness of his explanations. He quotes or paraphrases a wide range of earlier philosophers—Presocratics (such as Parmenides, Empedocles, and Anaxagoras), Plato, Stoics, Peripatetics, and other Neoplatonists. Many fragments of early Greek philosophy known today survive solely because Simplicius reproduced them while discussing Aristotle’s arguments, especially in his commentary on the Physics.

Simplicius consistently presents himself as a faithful interpreter of Aristotle, yet he writes from a Neoplatonic standpoint shaped by Plotinus, Iamblichus, Syrianus, and Proclus. He often cites earlier Peripatetic commentators (e.g., Alexander of Aphrodisias) while sometimes correcting them in light of Neoplatonic metaphysics. His commentaries therefore function not only as explanations of Aristotle but also as syntheses of centuries of philosophical debate.

Philosophical Outlook and Doctrines

Harmonization of Plato and Aristotle

A central aim of Simplicius’ thought is philosophical harmonization. He argues that, properly understood, Plato and Aristotle are fundamentally in agreement on essential points about the structure of reality and the soul’s ascent to the divine. Apparent contradictions, in his view, stem from:

• Differences of terminology,
• Varied pedagogical aims, or
• Aristotle’s focus on the natural and empirical level versus Plato’s emphasis on the intelligible and metaphysical.

Simplicius thus continues a Neoplatonist tradition that sees Aristotle as a crucial preparatory step toward understanding Platonic metaphysics, rather than as a rival system.

Cosmology and Eternity of the World

In his commentaries on Physics and On the Heavens, Simplicius defends the eternity of the cosmos against views of temporal creation. He understands the world as:

• Eternally dependent on a transcendent First Principle (the One or Good),
• Ordered through hierarchical levels of Intellect (Nous) and *Soul,
• Governed by rational, unchanging laws.

He interprets Aristotle’s unmoved mover and celestial motions in a way compatible with the Neoplatonic hierarchy. For Simplicius, the world’s eternity does not conflict with its dependence on the One; rather, eternal procession from the divine is the fullest expression of cosmic order.

Physics, Causation, and Natural Change

Simplicius closely analyzes Aristotle’s concept of nature, motion, and causation. He elaborates:

• The distinction among four causes (material, formal, efficient, final),
• The nature of place, time, and void,
• The relationship between sensible bodies and intelligible forms.

He generally defends Aristotle’s rejection of a real void while also discussing alternative ancient theories (e.g., atomist views). His commentary is especially valuable for its reconstructions of rival schools, presented in order to clarify Aristotle’s own position.

Psychology and Ethics

In the commentary on On the Soul and especially in the commentary on Epictetus’ Encheiridion, Simplicius addresses the soul, freedom, and virtue. He accepts key Stoic ethical ideas—such as focusing on what is “up to us” (within our control)—but reinterprets them within a Neoplatonic framework:

• The rational soul is distinct from the body and capable of ascent toward the divine.
• External circumstances are relatively indifferent compared to the soul’s inner orientation.
• Ethical practice prepares the philosopher for contemplation, the highest human activity.

He frequently stresses the compatibility of Stoic moral discipline with Platonic and Aristotelian ethics, showing how a Neoplatonist can appropriate Stoic insights without accepting Stoic materialism.

Theology and the One

While his commentaries are primarily expository, Simplicius presupposes the standard late Neoplatonic triadic structure of reality: the One, Intellect, and Soul. He interprets Aristotelian theology as referring, at least implicitly, to this higher metaphysical schema. Thus:

• Aristotle’s unmoved mover is associated with the intelligible divine realm.
• The multiplicity of heavens and celestial movers is linked with a hierarchy of divine intellects.
• The cosmos mediates between transcendent unity and material multiplicity.

His theological remarks are often compressed and allusive, reflecting the view that the highest principles are best approached indirectly, through careful interpretation of authoritative texts.

Legacy and Historical Significance

Simplicius occupies a crucial position in the transmission of Greek philosophy. His writings:

• Preserve extensive fragments of Presocratic and early classical philosophers, which would otherwise be lost.
• Provide detailed testimonies about earlier Peripatetic, Stoic, and Neoplatonic interpretations of Aristotle.
• Exemplify the mature form of late antique commentary, which became a model for later Byzantine, Islamic, and Latin scholastic scholars.

Medieval philosophers in different traditions encountered Aristotelian ideas in ways shaped, directly or indirectly, by commentators like Simplicius. In the Islamic world, where Greek philosophical texts were translated into Arabic, later thinkers were aware of late antique commentaries, and some of Simplicius’ discussions may have influenced the understanding of Aristotle. In the Latin West, citations and echoes of his interpretations appear via intermediary sources, reinforcing particular readings of Aristotle on physics, cosmology, and the soul.

Modern scholarship values Simplicius for two main reasons. Historians of philosophy depend on him as a source for early Greek thought and for late Neoplatonism. At the same time, he is increasingly studied as a philosopher in his own right, whose project of reconciling different traditions and preserving a comprehensive vision of reality illustrates the intellectual ambitions of the final phase of ancient pagan philosophy.

Assessments of Simplicius differ. Proponents emphasize his philological accuracy, breadth of learning, and systematic concern for coherence among major philosophical schools. Critics sometimes see his harmonizing approach as minimizing real doctrinal conflicts or subordinating Aristotle to a pre‑established Neoplatonic framework. Nonetheless, his commentaries remain indispensable for understanding both Aristotle’s reception and the complex landscape of late antique thought.

Simplicius thus stands as one of the last, and most erudite, representatives of the ancient Greek philosophical tradition—a thinker whose commitment to exegetical precision and doctrinal synthesis secured a lasting place in the history of philosophy.