subsistence

Etymology and Basic Sense

Subsistence is a philosophical and theological term designating a specific mode of being or way of existing. It derives from Latin subsistentia, from subsistere—“to stand firm, remain, continue to exist”—itself formed from sub- (“under”) and sistere (“to stand”). Historically, the term came to mark what “stands under” as a stable, underlying reality.

In metaphysical contexts, subsistence is contrasted with:

• Inherence: accidental properties inhere in a subject; they do not subsist on their own.
• Existence (in a narrow sense): empirical or spatiotemporal being, as opposed to the more abstract or metaphysical sense of “to subsist.”
• Mere occurrence or eventhood: what subsists is more enduring and self-contained than a transient event.

Outside philosophy and theology, “subsistence” commonly refers to a minimal level of material support for life (e.g., “subsistence farming”), which is historically related to the idea of “continuing to stand or endure,” but conceptually separate from the technical metaphysical usage.

Scholastic Metaphysics and Theology

In medieval scholasticism, especially in the work of Thomas Aquinas, subsistence is tied to the framework of substance and accidents. A substance is that which exists in itself (per se), while accidents exist in another (in alio). Subsistence expresses the complete and self-contained mode of existence proper to substances and persons.

For Aquinas, a person is “an individual substance of a rational nature.” The term subsistent highlights that a person is not simply a collection of properties, but a concrete who that exists in itself and is the bearer of actions and relations. Thus, in Christology and Trinitarian theology, Aquinas can describe:

• Each divine person (Father, Son, Spirit) as a “subsistent relation”: not a separate substance from the divine essence, but a distinct mode of subsisting within that one essence.
• The person of Christ as the divine hypostasis in which a human nature subsists without forming a separate human person.

Later scholastics, notably Francisco Suárez, elaborate this into a more fine-grained ontology. Suárez describes subsistence as the “termination” of a nature: what makes an essence (for example, “humanity”) exist as a concrete suppositum (an individual bearer of properties). On this account, subsistence is a metaphysical principle that converts a nature into an individuated person or thing.

In Roman Catholic theology, the term becomes central in ecclesiology through the formula of the Second Vatican Council (Lumen gentium 8): the Church of Christ “subsists in” (subsistit in) the Catholic Church. This choice of “subsists in,” rather than simply “is,” has generated extensive debate. Interpretations include:

• That the full and concrete realization of the Church of Christ is found in the Catholic Church,
• While elements of sanctification and truth can be recognized outside its visible structures.

Proponents of a more inclusive reading argue that subsistit in allows recognition of genuine ecclesial reality in other Christian communities. More restrictive readings stress that “subsists in” signals uniqueness and identity, not mere partial embodiment.

Modern Transformations and Contemporary Uses

In early modern philosophy, the notion of substance as that which subsists remains influential, even when terminology shifts. While Kant does not give “subsistence” a central systematic role, he preserves the classical contrast between substances that subsist and properties that inhere. Substance, for Kant, is what endures through change and provides the persistent framework for appearances, though now understood as a category structuring experience rather than a metaphysical “thing in itself.”

In nineteenth- and twentieth-century thought, “subsistence” finds renewed use in several ways:

1. Abstract and non-existent entities: Influenced by Alexius Meinong, some analytic metaphysicians distinguish between things that exist (in space and time) and things that merely subsist (e.g., numbers, sets, or even fictional characters). On this view:

   • The number 2 or the set of natural numbers subsists but does not exist in the empirical sense.
   • A fictional character like Sherlock Holmes can be said to subsist as an object of thought or discourse, without existing.

   Critics argue that this multiplies modes of being and obscures the ordinary meaning of “existence,” while defenders contend that it offers a precise way to accommodate reference to non-empirical entities.

2. Phenomenology and personalism: Some twentieth-century personalist and phenomenological thinkers use “subsistence” to emphasize the irreducible reality of persons as centers of experience and value. Here, to say that a person “subsists” is to insist that they are not a mere functional node in a system nor reducible to physical or social processes.

3. Ecclesiological debates: The Vatican II formula subsistit in continues to shape theological discussions on ecumenism and church identity. Supporters of a strong identity reading claim that “subsists in” is meant to intensify, rather than weaken, the assertion of identity between the Church of Christ and the Catholic Church. Others emphasize its role in recognizing continuity alongside fragmentation, allowing for a nuanced account of how ecclesial reality can be present beyond a single institution.

In contemporary non-technical language, “subsistence” is routinely used in expression such as “subsistence level,” “subsistence farming,” or “subsistence economy,” denoting the minimum material means required for survival. While historically rooted in the idea of “continuing to exist,” in these contexts the term refers not to a metaphysical mode of being but to socioeconomic conditions that barely sustain life.

Across its diverse uses, subsistence continues to signal a concern with how something is, and endures, as a concrete or underlying reality—whether that “something” is a person, a church, an abstract object, or a way of life at the edge of survival.