Cynthia Holden Enloe
Cynthia Holden Enloe is an American feminist scholar whose work has reshaped how scholars and activists understand power, war, and globalization. Trained as a political scientist, Enloe became a key figure in feminist international relations by insisting that women’s everyday experiences—whether as domestic workers, factory laborers, soldiers’ wives, sex workers near military bases, or women within nationalist movements—are central to global politics rather than marginal. Her pioneering books, especially "Bananas, Beaches and Bases" and "Does Khaki Become You?", made visible the gendered foundations of militarism, imperialism, and international economic arrangements. Enloe’s philosophical relevance lies in her methodological and normative commitments. She develops a feminist, empirically grounded critique of supposedly neutral concepts such as security, sovereignty, and the public–private divide, exposing the moral and political costs of ignoring gender. Her work advances a distinctive form of critical social and political philosophy that bridges theory and lived experience, showing how curiosity about the mundane can reveal hidden hierarchies. Enloe has influenced debates in feminist epistemology, ethics of war and peace, and critical theory by demonstrating that attentiveness to women’s voices and to the texture of everyday life is indispensable for any adequate account of justice, power, and responsibility in a globalized world.
At a Glance
- Field
- Thinker
- Born
- 1938-07-16 — New York City, New York, United States
- Died
- Active In
- United States, United Kingdom, Japan, Global South (through field research)
- Interests
- Feminist international relationsMilitarism and genderGlobalization and everyday lifeNationalism and womenColonialism and postcolonial gender politicsLabor, especially domestic and militarized laborFeminist methodologies
Cynthia Enloe’s core thesis is that international politics, war, and globalization cannot be properly understood—or ethically evaluated—without serious, methodical attention to how power is organized through gender in the everyday lives of women and men; by following women’s diverse experiences and labor, especially where they have been rendered invisible, one can uncover the gendered, racialized, and classed structures that sustain militarism, nationalism, and global economic orders.
Ethnic Soldiers: State Security in Divided Societies
Composed: Late 1970s (published 1980)
Does Khaki Become You? The Militarisation of Women's Lives
Composed: Early 1980s (published 1983)
Bananas, Beaches and Bases: Making Feminist Sense of International Politics
Composed: Mid to late 1980s (first edition 1989; revised later)
Maneuvers: The International Politics of Militarizing Women’s Lives
Composed: Late 1990s (published 2000)
The Curious Feminist: Searching for Women in a New Age of Empire
Composed: Early 2000s (published 2004)
Globalization and Militarism: Feminists Make the Link
Composed: Early 2000s (first edition 2004; later expanded)
Nimo’s War, Emma’s War: Making Feminist Sense of the Iraq War
Composed: Late 2000s (published 2010)
"The important question to ask is not 'Where are the women?' but 'Where are the women and why are they there?'"— Cynthia Enloe, The Curious Feminist: Searching for Women in a New Age of Empire (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004)
Enloe urges researchers to move beyond simply adding women into existing frameworks and instead to interrogate the power relations that position women in particular roles and spaces within global politics.
"Militarization is not an event; it is a process. It is the step-by-step transformation of the ordinary into the militarized."— Cynthia Enloe, Maneuvers: The International Politics of Militarizing Women’s Lives (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000)
Here Enloe articulates her influential notion of militarization as a gradual reorientation of everyday life around military values, helping philosophers and social theorists to recognize subtle forms of normalization of violence and hierarchy.
"Feminist curiosity is about asking questions about the condition of women in a way that takes women’s lives seriously."— Cynthia Enloe, The Curious Feminist: Searching for Women in a New Age of Empire (2004)
Enloe explains her methodological commitment to sustained, ethically charged inquiry into women’s experiences, framing curiosity as both an epistemic virtue and a political stance against indifference.
"There is nothing natural or inevitable about women’s complicity with militarization; it has to be worked for."— Cynthia Enloe, Does Khaki Become You? The Militarisation of Women’s Lives (London: Pandora Press, 1983)
In analyzing women’s roles in supporting military institutions, Enloe emphasizes the active ideological and material labor required to secure consent, challenging deterministic accounts of gender and war.
"If you do not look at women’s lives, you will misunderstand the world."— Paraphrase of Enloe’s repeated claim across interviews and lectures; see also Bananas, Beaches and Bases: Making Feminist Sense of International Politics (updated ed., Berkeley: University of California Press, 2014)
Enloe distills her core contention that ignoring women’s experiences produces not merely incomplete but positively distorted understandings of global political and economic order.
Early Comparative Politics and Conventional IR (1960s–mid-1970s)
In the years surrounding her Ph.D. at UC Berkeley and early teaching positions, Enloe worked largely within mainstream comparative politics and international relations, focusing on issues like nationalism and state-building with relatively little explicit attention to gender; this period gave her a deep familiarity with canonical theories she would later critique from a feminist perspective.
Turn to Feminist Critique and Gendered Militarism (late 1970s–1980s)
Influenced by global feminist movements and her own encounters with women activists, Enloe began to re-examine international politics through women’s experiences; in works like "Ethnic Soldiers" and "Does Khaki Become You?" she developed a critical analysis of how states militarize both men and women, while still treating these studies as political science rather than purely feminist theory.
Feminist International Relations and Everyday Globalization (late 1980s–1990s)
With "Bananas, Beaches and Bases" (1989) and related essays, Enloe explicitly positioned herself within feminist IR, popularizing the idea of making feminist sense of international politics by tracing connections between domestic labor, tourism, military basing, and imperial histories; she refined her concept of the "politics of everyday life" and deepened her critique of conventional notions of security and power.
Militarization, Post–Cold War Conflicts, and Methodological Reflection (2000s)
In books like "Maneuvers" (2000) and "The Curious Feminist" (2004), Enloe examined the gendered dimensions of peacekeeping, ethnic conflict, and post–Cold War interventions, while explicitly thematizing feminist curiosity, listening, and self-reflexivity as methodological virtues; she increasingly engaged with peace studies and human rights debates, bringing her work into conversation with moral and political philosophy.
Global Feminist Politics, Neoliberalism, and Ongoing Activist Engagement (2010s–present)
Recent works such as "Globalization and Militarism" and updated editions of earlier books situate her gendered analysis of war and empire within neoliberal globalization, security privatization, and transnational feminist activism; Enloe reflects on aging, pedagogy, and the ethics of solidarity, consolidating her role as a public intellectual and mentor to generations of feminist scholars whose work intersects with critical philosophy.
1. Introduction
Cynthia Holden Enloe (b. 1938) is a U.S.-based feminist scholar whose work has been central to rethinking international relations, militarism, and globalization through the lens of gender and everyday life. Trained as a conventional political scientist, she became widely known for arguing that activities often dismissed as “private” or “domestic”—such as housework, tourism, romantic relationships, or factory labor—are integral to how global power actually operates.
Enloe is commonly associated with the development of feminist international relations (feminist IR). In this field, she is frequently cited for insisting that analysts ask not only “Where are the women?” but also “Why are they there, and under what conditions?” Her books, especially Bananas, Beaches and Bases (1989; rev. 2014) and Does Khaki Become You? (1983), are often described as foundational for making visible the gendered structures underpinning war, empire, and the global economy.
Within academic debates, Enloe is treated as a key figure in connecting empirical research on women’s lives—such as the experiences of military wives, domestic workers, or women in export-processing zones—to broader theoretical discussions about security, sovereignty, nationalism, and globalization. Philosophers, political theorists, and sociologists draw on her work to challenge the idea that these concepts are gender-neutral.
Although her primary institutional home has been political science, her influence extends into feminist theory, peace and conflict studies, and global studies. Enloe’s distinctive emphasis on feminist curiosity, attentive listening, and the politics of the “mundane” has shaped how subsequent scholars and activists conceptualize power, militarization, and resistance in contemporary global politics.
2. Life and Historical Context
Enloe was born on 16 July 1938 in New York City and came of age in the early Cold War period, a context that shaped both her initial interest in international politics and the later feminist rethinking of that field. She completed a B.A. at Connecticut College in 1960 and a Ph.D. in political science at the University of California, Berkeley, in 1967, during an era marked by decolonization, the Vietnam War, and student activism. These developments provided a backdrop for her early focus on nationalism and state-building.
Her long affiliation with Clark University, beginning in 1972, coincided with the rise of second-wave feminism, anti-war movements, and increasing scholarly attention to race, empire, and postcolonial politics. Enloe’s encounters with women activists in diverse locales—including Britain, Japan, and countries in the Global South—took place amid debates about U.S. military basing, development policies, and global labor reorganization.
Key historical processes that intersected with her work include:
| Period | Contextual Developments Relevant to Enloe |
|---|---|
| 1960s–1970s | Decolonization, Vietnam War, civil rights and women’s movements, institutionalization of IR as a field |
| 1980s | Intensification of Cold War militarism, growth of transnational corporations, emergence of feminist critiques of mainstream IR |
| 1990s | Post–Cold War interventions, UN peacekeeping expansion, globalization and structural adjustment programs |
| 2000s–2010s | Post-9/11 “war on terror,” privatization of security, expansion of global care chains, consolidation of transnational feminist networks |
Scholars often situate Enloe within this broader transformation of international politics and feminist scholarship. Some emphasize that her work reflects the increasing visibility of women’s activism around militarism and development, while others underscore how she responds to changing forms of empire, such as U.S.-led coalitions and neoliberal globalization. Her career thus spans—and continually responds to—major shifts in both world politics and feminist theory.
3. Intellectual Development
Enloe’s intellectual trajectory is commonly described in phases, each marked by distinct emphases yet continuous in its concern with power, conflict, and state-building.
Early Comparative Politics and Mainstream IR
In the 1960s and early 1970s, Enloe worked largely within conventional comparative politics and international relations. Her research on nationalism, ethnic conflict, and state security employed widely accepted theoretical tools, focusing on topics such as ethnic armies and divided societies. Gender was not yet a central analytic category, but this period provided her with detailed knowledge of state institutions and security doctrines.
Turn to Feminist Critique and Militarized Gender Relations
By the late 1970s and 1980s, influenced by feminist movements and interactions with women activists, Enloe began re-reading her earlier concerns through a gender lens. Works like Ethnic Soldiers (1980) and Does Khaki Become You? (1983) analyze how states recruit and regulate women and men for military purposes, marking a shift toward what would later be recognized as feminist IR. She started to question assumptions about the “gender neutrality” of security and war.
Feminist IR and Everyday Globalization
With Bananas, Beaches and Bases (1989), Enloe explicitly positioned her work as feminist and foregrounded the everyday as a site of international politics. She traced links between tourism, domestic service, military prostitution, and diplomatic households, arguing that women’s labor and sexuality are structured by imperial and nationalist projects. This phase solidified her reputation within feminist IR.
Methodological Reflection and Post–Cold War Conflicts
In the 2000s, in works such as Maneuvers (2000) and The Curious Feminist (2004), Enloe deepened her analysis of militarization and peacekeeping while explicitly theorizing feminist curiosity, listening, and reflexivity. She engaged more directly with debates over human rights, peacebuilding, and the ethics of intervention.
Global Feminisms, Neoliberalism, and Aging
Subsequent writings, including Globalization and Militarism and Nimo’s War, Emma’s War (2010), connect militarism to neoliberal economic policies and transnational feminist activism. Enloe reflects on pedagogy, generational change, and the politics of care, extending her analysis to contemporary conflicts and globalized labor regimes.
4. Major Works
Enloe’s major works are often read together as a sustained inquiry into gender, militarism, and global politics, with each text highlighting different dimensions of these themes.
| Work | Focus and Significance |
|---|---|
| Ethnic Soldiers: State Security in Divided Societies (1980) | Examines how states recruit minority groups into armed forces, exploring the politics of loyalty, coercion, and ethnic division. Although not yet explicitly feminist, it prefigures later concerns with how states manage marginalized populations. |
| Does Khaki Become You? The Militarisation of Women’s Lives (1983) | One of the earliest systematic analyses of how militaries draw on women as workers, wives, nurses, and symbols. It introduces her argument that women’s complicity with militarization is actively produced rather than “natural.” |
| Bananas, Beaches and Bases: Making Feminist Sense of International Politics (1989; rev. ed. 2014) | Widely considered foundational for feminist IR, this book uses case studies of tourism, diplomatic households, export agriculture, and military basing to show how women’s everyday labor sustains global power structures. The revised edition updates examples for the post–Cold War and post-9/11 periods. |
| Maneuvers: The International Politics of Militarizing Women’s Lives (2000) | Provides a historical and comparative account of militarization as a process reshaping women’s roles. It spans contexts from empire to contemporary peacekeeping, emphasizing how femininities and masculinities are crafted for military purposes. |
| The Curious Feminist: Searching for Women in a New Age of Empire (2004) | A collection of essays that elaborates Enloe’s methodological commitments, especially feminist curiosity and listening, while applying them to topics such as structural adjustment, refugee camps, and media portrayals of war. |
| Globalization and Militarism: Feminists Make the Link (2004; later expanded) | Argues that global economic restructuring and militarization are mutually reinforcing, exploring issues such as arms industries, military alliances, and transnational activism. |
| Nimo’s War, Emma’s War: Making Feminist Sense of the Iraq War (2010) | Follows the lives of eight women—Iraqi and American—to analyze the Iraq War from a gendered, everyday perspective, illustrating how global conflicts are experienced in households, workplaces, and communities. |
These works are frequently used as core texts in courses on feminist IR, gender and security, and globalization, and they serve as reference points for both supportive and critical engagements with Enloe’s approach.
5. Core Ideas and Concepts
Enloe’s corpus develops a set of recurring concepts that structure her analysis of global politics.
Gendered International Politics
She posits that international politics is constitutively gendered: states, militaries, and markets rely on specific constructions of masculinity and femininity. Proponents of this view argue that ignoring gender distorts understandings of security, diplomacy, and war. Some critics contend that this risks underplaying other axes of power, such as class or religion, though Enloe’s later work increasingly emphasizes intersectionality.
Militarization as Process
Enloe defines militarization as a gradual process in which everyday life becomes organized around military values. This includes valorizing obedience, heroism, and readiness for violence, and normalizing military presence in schools, entertainment, and domestic relationships. Scholars sympathetic to this notion use it to analyze subtle forms of consent to war; others suggest the concept can be stretched too broadly, blurring distinctions between civilian and military spheres.
Everyday Politics and Labor
A central idea is that everyday life—from household work to tourism—is intrinsically political. Women’s paid and unpaid labor, in particular, underpins global production chains and military operations. Enloe’s supporters argue that this reconceptualization exposes hidden forms of exploitation. An alternative view holds that focusing on the everyday may divert attention from high-level institutional decision-making.
Feminist Curiosity and Listening
She advances feminist curiosity as a disposition to ask persistent questions about women’s placement in political and economic structures, combined with careful listening to women’s own accounts. Enloe presents this as both an epistemic and ethical stance. While many feminist scholars adopt this language, some critics caution that “curiosity” alone does not resolve power imbalances between researchers and researched.
Across these ideas, Enloe’s overarching claim is that taking women’s lives seriously transforms how concepts such as security, nationalism, and globalization are understood and evaluated.
6. Methodology and Feminist Curiosity
Enloe’s methodological contribution is widely associated with her articulation of feminist curiosity—a mode of inquiry that guides what questions are asked, whose voices are sought out, and how evidence is interpreted.
Feminist Curiosity
Enloe characterizes feminist curiosity as a commitment to asking how women come to occupy particular positions in families, workplaces, armies, and international institutions. It involves resisting taken-for-granted explanations, such as “tradition” or “national security,” and probing the historical and political processes that produce those arrangements.
“Feminist curiosity is about asking questions about the condition of women in a way that takes women’s lives seriously.”
— Cynthia Enloe, The Curious Feminist (2004)
Supporters view this as a corrective to social science approaches that treat women’s experiences as anecdotal. Some critics suggest that curiosity, if not combined with structural analysis, can lapse into descriptive cataloguing without explaining causal mechanisms.
Listening and Situated Knowledge
Enloe emphasizes listening to women in varied locations—military spouses, domestic workers, factory employees—as a central research practice. She aligns with strands of feminist epistemology that stress situated knowledge, arguing that people in marginalized positions can reveal blind spots in dominant theories. Debates persist over how researchers should navigate translation, representation, and potential romanticization of “the everyday.”
Empirical, Inductive, and Story-Based Approach
Her method is empirically grounded, often drawing on interviews, historical archives, and ethnographic observation. She frequently uses stories or vignettes as entry points into larger structures. Advocates maintain that this inductive, narrative style effectively demonstrates links between micro-level experiences and macro-level politics. Others argue that it can make it harder to generalize or formalize findings compared with more quantitatively oriented IR scholarship.
Overall, Enloe’s methodology integrates ethical commitments—respect, reflexivity, anti-militarist skepticism—with specific research techniques, shaping how feminist IR and related fields conduct inquiry.
7. Militarism, Globalization, and Everyday Life
Enloe’s analysis of militarism and globalization centers on their entanglement with everyday practices, especially women’s labor and bodies.
Militarism as Social Order
She portrays militarism not only as a set of institutions (armies, bases) but as a social order that prizes hierarchy, discipline, and readiness for violence. In Maneuvers and Does Khaki Become You?, she details how militaries construct idealized masculinities (soldiers) and feminized roles (supportive wives, nurses, sex workers), arguing that such roles are crucial for sustaining military operations. Proponents use this framework to examine how gender norms are reshaped in wartime and peacetime. Critics sometimes question whether the emphasis on gendered roles underplays economic or strategic drivers of militarization.
Globalization and Gendered Labor
In Bananas, Beaches and Bases and Globalization and Militarism, Enloe links global economic restructuring with the spread of militarized practices. She highlights:
| Sector | Enloe’s Focus |
|---|---|
| Export agriculture and factories | Employment of women in low-wage, highly regulated settings (e.g., banana plantations, export processing zones) |
| Tourism | Sexualized and racialized marketing of women’s bodies, especially in “exotic” or postcolonial destinations |
| Military basing | Surrounding economies of service work, prostitution, and domestic labor that sustain foreign troops |
Supporters argue that this analysis reveals how global markets rely on gendered and racialized divisions of labor. Alternative approaches within globalization studies may treat militarism as a secondary or separate phenomenon, focusing instead on trade, finance, or technology.
Everyday Life as Site of Power
Enloe insists that the everyday—households, dating practices, shopping, childcare—is where militarism and globalization become normalized. For example, military recruitment advertisements, popular films, and family narratives about service all play roles in encouraging acceptance of war. This emphasis has inspired research on “everyday security” and “everyday peace.” Some skeptics maintain that such studies risk overstating the political significance of mundane activities, though others see them as essential for understanding consent and resistance.
8. Key Contributions to Political and Social Philosophy
While Enloe writes primarily as a political scientist, commentators identify several contributions to political and social philosophy arising from her work.
Rethinking Core Political Concepts
Enloe offers gendered critiques of concepts such as security, sovereignty, and nationalism. She argues that traditional accounts often rest on masculinized ideals—protector/protected, public/private—that obscure women’s vulnerabilities and agency. Philosophers of war and peace use her work to question state-centered notions of security and to develop human security approaches that foreground individuals’ daily safety. Some theorists, however, argue that these critiques may underemphasize the enduring importance of state institutions.
Structural Injustice and Global Responsibility
By tracing how tourism, domestic labor, and export production are interwoven with militarization, Enloe contributes to discussions of structural injustice and complicity. Her analyses suggest that seemingly ordinary consumer choices and employment relations can support distant conflicts or exploitative regimes. Proponents see this as enriching debates on global justice with concrete examples. Critics sometimes suggest that her approach leaves under-specified which agents bear what kinds of duties to change these structures.
Epistemic Practices and Feminist Methodology
Her emphasis on feminist curiosity and listening has influenced feminist epistemology and the philosophy of social science. She exemplifies how knowledge production is shaped by the researcher’s standpoint and by whose voices are treated as credible. Supportive accounts view this as a model for reflexive, situated inquiry; skeptical commentators question how far such an approach can be generalized beyond feminist research contexts.
Everyday Life as Philosophical Site
Enloe’s focus on the politics of everyday life has been taken up by critical theorists and feminist phenomenologists exploring how power operates through habits, emotions, and affect. Her work suggests that domination is maintained not only through coercive laws but also through cultural narratives and intimate relationships. Debates persist over how this everyday orientation should be balanced with analyses of formal institutions and legal frameworks.
Together, these strands position Enloe as a significant interlocutor for philosophical inquiries into power, justice, and knowledge in a globalized, militarized world.
9. Engagement with Feminist Movements and Policy Debates
Enloe’s scholarship is closely intertwined with feminist activism and public debate, though she generally positions herself more as a reflective analyst and educator than as a direct policy advocate.
Connections with Feminist Movements
From the late 1970s onward, Enloe has interacted with women’s peace groups, anti-militarist organizations, and transnational feminist networks. Her work is widely cited in campaigns addressing issues such as:
| Issue Area | Types of Feminist Engagements Using Enloe’s Work |
|---|---|
| Military bases and prostitution | Advocacy against violence around bases and for the rights of local women employed in sex industries |
| Women, peace, and security | Contributions to debates leading up to and following UN Security Council Resolution 1325 on women’s roles in conflict and peacebuilding |
| Global labor and migration | Organizing around domestic workers’ rights, global care chains, and sweatshop labor |
Activists often draw on her analyses to frame militarism and globalization as gendered structures rather than isolated events. Some movement actors, however, argue that her perspective is more diagnostic than programmatic, providing critical insight without detailed blueprints for reform.
Influence on Policy and International Institutions
Enloe has engaged with international organizations, NGOs, and governmental bodies through lectures, consultations, and educational materials. Her ideas inform training programs on gender and peacekeeping, security sector reform, and human rights monitoring. Supporters see this as a way to infuse feminist perspectives into policy arenas traditionally dominated by military and diplomatic elites.
Critics within feminist circles sometimes question the extent to which engagement with institutions like the UN or national militaries risks co-optation, turning feminist insights into technocratic “gender mainstreaming” without substantive change. Others view her role as primarily that of a critical interlocutor, whose presence in such spaces is aimed at unsettling complacency rather than endorsing specific policy frameworks.
Public Intellectual and Pedagogical Role
Enloe frequently addresses non-academic audiences, including students, community groups, and activist organizations. Her accessible style and use of everyday examples are seen as contributing to popular understandings of feminist approaches to war and globalization. Some commentators highlight this pedagogical orientation as a distinctive form of engagement, blurring boundaries between scholarship, activism, and public education.
10. Legacy and Historical Significance
Enloe is widely regarded as a pioneering figure in feminist international relations and in the study of gender and militarism. Her influence is reflected in the proliferation of research on topics she helped to foreground: military spouses, peacekeeping economies, gendered labor in global supply chains, and the everyday politics of security.
Disciplinary Impact
Within IR and political science, her work contributed to challenging the dominance of realist and liberal paradigms by demonstrating that gender is not merely an “add-on” variable but constitutive of core concepts. Feminist IR has since become a recognized subfield, with Enloe’s texts often cited as foundational. Some scholars, however, argue that feminist insights remain marginal in mainstream IR, suggesting that her impact has been greater in critical and interdisciplinary spaces than in canonical theory.
Generational and Transnational Reach
Enloe’s teaching and mentoring at Clark University and beyond have shaped multiple generations of scholars and activists. Her work has been translated, adapted, and debated in diverse contexts, including East Asia, Latin America, and Europe, contributing to transnational feminist dialogues about militarism and globalization. Interpretations vary as to how easily her analyses, largely grounded in U.S. and allied contexts, translate to other geopolitical settings.
Continuing Relevance and Critique
Her emphasis on militarization and everyday life has remained salient in discussions of the “war on terror,” drone warfare, private security firms, and global care chains. Supporters argue that her framework continues to reveal how new forms of warfare and economic restructuring are gendered. Critics suggest that newer theoretical tools—such as queer theory, critical race theory, or postcolonial and decolonial approaches—sometimes push beyond her formulations, for example by more systematically centering sexuality, indigeneity, or racial capitalism.
Despite such debates, Enloe is frequently cited as a key reference point for anyone investigating the intersections of gender, war, and global political economy. Her legacy lies in making it intellectually difficult to treat international politics as separable from the everyday, gendered lives of those who live under, work for, or resist militarized and globalized orders.
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title = {Cynthia Holden Enloe},
author = {Philopedia},
year = {2025},
url = {https://philopedia.com/thinkers/cynthia-holden-enloe/},
urldate = {December 11, 2025}
}Note: This entry was last updated on 2025-12-10. For the most current version, always check the online entry.