Gordon Daniel Kaufman

1. Introduction

Gordon Daniel Kaufman (1925–2011) was an American theologian whose work reshaped late twentieth‑century debates about God, religious language, and the nature of theology. Writing mainly from Harvard Divinity School, he argued that theological claims are not straightforward descriptions of a divine being but imaginative human constructions that seek to make sense of what he called ultimate mystery. This proposal placed him at the crossroads of Christian theology, philosophy of religion, hermeneutics, and the philosophy of science.

Kaufman is often located among constructive and postliberal theologians, yet his program was distinctive in its sustained emphasis on historical consciousness, fallibilism, and the ethical testing of theological ideas. Instead of treating doctrines as timeless truths, he interpreted them as context‑bound symbolic frameworks whose adequacy must be judged by their coherence, their fit with contemporary knowledge (including evolutionary cosmology), and their consequences for human and ecological well‑being.

His major works—God the Problem (1968), Systematic Theology: A Historicist Perspective (1972), In Face of Mystery (1993), and In the Beginning… Creativity (2001)—develop a consistent yet evolving vision: theology as disciplined imagination, God as a symbolically mediated orientation to reality, and creativity as a central modern symbol for what classical theism has called God. For many philosophers, Kaufman represents a sophisticated form of religious non‑realism or critical realism; for theologians, he offers a thoroughgoing rethinking of Christian doctrine under conditions of pluralism and scientific modernity.

The following sections situate Kaufman’s life and work, outline his intellectual development, and analyze the main contours, reception, and historical significance of his thought.

2. Life and Historical Context

2.1 Biographical Overview

Kaufman was born on 22 July 1925 in Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania, into a Mennonite family whose pacifist and communal ethos strongly marked his later ethical concerns. After studies at Goshen College, he pursued graduate work at Yale University, completing a PhD in theology in 1953. Early teaching appointments preceded his long tenure at Harvard Divinity School, which he joined in 1963 and where he remained a central figure until his retirement. He died in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on his 86th birthday in 2011, reportedly from complications related to pneumonia.

2.2 Historical and Theological Setting

Kaufman’s career unfolded amid major mid‑ and late‑twentieth‑century shifts:

He wrote in dialogue with Protestant neo‑orthodoxy (e.g., Karl Barth), liberal and process theologies, analytic philosophy of religion, and hermeneutical philosophy (Heidegger, Gadamer, Ricoeur). The civil rights movement, Vietnam War, feminist and liberation theologies, and emerging ecological awareness also formed part of his horizon, influencing his insistence that theology be ethically accountable and publicly responsible.

Within this context, Kaufman’s project can be seen as one response to the question of how Christian theology might remain intellectually credible and morally responsible in a late‑modern, scientifically informed, and religiously diverse world.

3. Intellectual Development

3.1 Early Formation and Mennonite Ethos

Kaufman’s Mennonite upbringing fostered a stress on nonviolence, community, and discipleship. Scholars often link this background to his later conviction that theology must be judged by its ethical outcomes. His studies at Goshen College and Yale introduced him to classical Protestant thought—especially Luther and Barth—while also exposing him to historical‑critical methods and modern philosophy, setting up tensions between confessional commitments and critical inquiry that he would address throughout his career.

3.2 Turn to Historicism and Hermeneutics

In the 1960s, particularly after moving to Harvard, Kaufman began articulating a historicist view of theology. In Systematic Theology: A Historicist Perspective, he argued that doctrines are historically shaped constructions rather than timeless propositions. Engagement with hermeneutical thinkers and philosophy of science (notably fallibilist and pragmatist themes) led him to see theological systems as revisable interpretive frameworks. This marked a departure from strong neo‑orthodox claims about revelation’s immunity to historical critique.

3.3 Constructivist Theology and the “Problem of God”

The publication of God the Problem (1968) signaled a more explicit constructivist turn. Kaufman treated “God” as an imaginative symbol employed to unify experience and orient life toward ultimate mystery. He interacted with analytic debates about reference and meaning, questioning whether “God” functions like a proper name for a metaphysical entity or as a complex symbolic schema. This period solidified his reputation as a methodological innovator in theology.

3.4 Mystery, Pluralism, and Creativity

From the late 1980s onward, Kaufman’s focus shifted toward developing a comprehensive constructive theology capable of addressing pluralism and scientific cosmology. In Face of Mystery elaborated theology as imaginative orientation to an inexhaustible ultimate mystery; In the Beginning… Creativity proposed creativity as the central contemporary symbol for the divine. These later works reflect a matured synthesis of his earlier historicist and constructivist insights with new attention to ecological and global concerns.

4. Major Works

4.1 Overview Table

4.2 Brief Characterization

In The Atonement and Justification, Kaufman worked largely within traditional Protestant frameworks, analyzing how Christ’s work relates to human salvation. Commentators often view this book as a more conventional prelude to his later innovations.

God the Problem is widely considered his breakthrough text. Here he argues that “God” is not a directly referential term but part of a conceptual schema constructed to order human experience in relation to ultimate reality.

Systematic Theology: A Historicist Perspective extends this by proposing that all doctrines are historically conditioned and must remain open to revision. Kaufman aligns theology with modern hermeneutics and the philosophy of science, against views that see doctrine as fixed.

In Face of Mystery offers a wide‑ranging constructive theology, reinterpreting Christian symbols (creation, Christ, church, eschatology) as imaginative responses to mystery rather than literal metaphysical descriptions.

Finally, In the Beginning… Creativity focuses on cosmology and the doctrine of creation, suggesting that creativity better names the ultimate reality generative of the universe than traditional notions of sovereign omnipotence.

5. Core Ideas and Thought System

5.1 Theology as Human Construction

At the heart of Kaufman’s thought is the claim that theology is a human, imaginative, constructive activity. Theological systems are shaped by cultural, linguistic, and historical factors rather than directly revealed blueprints of divine reality. This leads to a fallibilist stance: all doctrines are provisional and revisable.

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“All theological statements are historically conditioned human constructs and therefore must always remain open to criticism, reconstruction, and even rejection.”

— Gordon D. Kaufman, Systematic Theology: A Historicist Perspective

5.2 God as Symbolic Orientation to Ultimate Mystery

Kaufman treats “God” as an imaginative construct that orients human life toward ultimate mystery—the inexhaustible depth and complexity of reality that eludes full conceptual grasp. The term “God” functions symbolically rather than as a straightforward name for a clearly knowable being.

5.3 Criteria of Adequacy

Kaufman proposes several criteria for judging theological constructions:

He especially emphasizes ethical impact, arguing that destructive theologies ought to be revised or abandoned.

5.4 Mystery, Pluralism, and Creativity

Kaufman’s mature system centers on three interrelated notions:

• Ultimate Mystery: the finally unintelligible depth of reality.
• Pluralism: diverse religions as varying constructive responses to the same mystery.
• Creativity: the evolving, world‑producing process taken as a central symbol for God.

This framework enables a chastened, non‑absolutist approach to theology that engages modern science and global diversity while maintaining a robust sense of religious seriousness.

6. Theology as Imaginative Construction

6.1 Nature of Imaginative Construction

Kaufman understands theology as a disciplined form of imagination. Theological concepts and systems are not arbitrary fantasies, but carefully crafted symbolic constructions that attempt to order human experience and orient action in relation to ultimate mystery. They emerge from communal traditions and historical circumstances, yet can be critically evaluated and reconstructed.

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“The term ‘God’ does not designate a ready-made reality whose nature we can simply describe; it is rather part of an imaginative construct by which we try to order our lives in relation to the profound mystery of existence.”

— Gordon D. Kaufman, God the Problem

6.2 Constructivism and Hermeneutics

This approach aligns theology with hermeneutics: theologians interpret inherited symbols and narratives, then re‑fashion them in light of contemporary knowledge and needs. Kaufman draws analogies to scientific theorizing, where models are constructed to make sense of data. Likewise, theology offers conceptual models (e.g., creation, redemption) that can be revised when they lose explanatory or ethical adequacy.

6.3 Distinction from Revelation‑Centered and Metaphysical Approaches

Kaufman’s project contrasts with:

Proponents of Kaufman highlight that this constructivist stance acknowledges human finitude and cultural diversity; critics worry it risks dissolving theology into anthropology.

6.4 Discipline and Responsibility

Kaufman insists that imaginative construction is rule‑governed: it must observe logical coherence, draw on communal traditions, engage other disciplines, and submit to ethical scrutiny. Theology, he maintains, is therefore both creative and responsible—neither purely repetitive of the past nor unconstrained speculation.

7. God, Mystery, and Creativity

7.1 Ultimate Mystery

For Kaufman, ultimate mystery names the depth of reality that cannot be fully conceptualized or mastered. It is not an object alongside others, but the inexhaustible background against which all beings and events appear.

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“We confront a mystery that finally eludes our grasp; theology is our imaginative effort to discern and articulate patterns of meaning within that mystery.”

— Gordon D. Kaufman, In Face of Mystery

Theology, on this view, is always indirect and partial; claims about God are human attempts to articulate patterns of meaning in relation to this mystery.

7.2 God as Symbolic Response

“God” functions as a symbolic orientation to ultimate mystery. Kaufman does not treat God as a clearly specifiable metaphysical entity, but as the central organizing symbol in a religious worldview. Different religious traditions offer varied symbolic constructions of God (or the ultimate), each shaped by historical context.

Some interpreters classify this as a form of religious non‑realism, emphasizing the human‑constructed character of God‑talk. Others see in Kaufman a critical realist: human symbols are constructed yet still aim, however fallibly, at a reality beyond them.

7.3 Creativity as a Central Theological Symbol

In his later work, Kaufman proposes creativity as the most adequate contemporary symbol for God. Observing that modern cosmology and evolutionary biology portray a universe characterized by emergent complexity, he suggests that “creativity” better captures the world‑generating process than classical images of divine sovereignty.

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“Creativity, not sovereignty or omnipotence, may now be the most adequate symbol for that ultimate reality which has produced and sustains the world we inhabit.”

— Gordon D. Kaufman, In the Beginning… Creativity

This symbol allows Kaufman to reinterpret doctrines of creation and providence without invoking a supernatural, interventionist deity, while still affirming a profound dependence of the world on an ultimate, creatively generative reality.

8. Methodology and Use of Historicism

8.1 Historicist Perspective

Kaufman’s methodology is explicitly historicist: all theological ideas arise within particular historical and cultural settings and must be understood as such. Doctrines are not timeless propositions but context‑specific constructions. This leads him to view the Christian tradition as a dynamic, evolving conversation rather than a fixed repository of truths.

8.2 Fallibilism and Revisability

Historicist awareness grounds Kaufman’s fallibilism. Because theology is historically conditioned, no doctrine is immune to critique or revision. He draws analogies to scientific progress, where theories are replaced or refined as new data emerge. Likewise, unprecedented historical events—such as the Holocaust, nuclear warfare, or ecological crisis—can render inherited images of God ethically or intellectually untenable, calling for reconstruction.

8.3 Engagement with Modern Knowledge

Kaufman insists that theology must take seriously:

His method seeks a fit between theological constructions and the best available knowledge, without reducing theology to any single discipline.

8.4 Hermeneutics and Criteria

Kaufman combines historicism with a hermeneutical approach: theologians interpret texts and traditions through contemporary horizons and then imaginatively reconfigure them. He proposes criteria—coherence, empirical fit, experiential resonance, ethical consequences—to guide this constructive work. Supporters view this as a rigorous, interdisciplinary method; critics argue it grants extra‑theological disciplines too much authority or underplays claims of revelation.

9. Impact on Philosophy of Religion

9.1 Influence on Debates about Religious Language

Kaufman’s account of God as an imaginative construct has been influential in discussions of religious language. His work is frequently compared with, and sometimes aligned to, non‑realist or critical‑realist positions. Philosophers of religion have drawn on his analyses to argue that:

• Religious terms function primarily as symbols within conceptual schemes.
• Reference to the divine is indirect and mediated by narratives and practices.
• The success of religious language should be judged partly by its pragmatic and ethical effects.

9.2 Relation to Analytic and Hermeneutical Traditions

Kaufman engages both analytic and continental traditions:

Some philosophers have used his work to challenge classical theism and its strong metaphysical claims, while others see in Kaufman resources for defending a chastened theism compatible with scientific naturalism.

9.3 Epistemology and Rationality of Faith

Kaufman’s insistence that theology be evaluated by coherence, explanatory power, and ethical consequences has contributed to discussions of the rationality of religious belief. His approach resonates with pragmatist and coherentist epistemologies, which assess beliefs by their role within a larger web of practices and experiences.

Supporters argue that he offers a compelling account of how religious belief can be rational without requiring demonstrative proofs of God’s existence. Critics worry that such an approach may blur distinctions between theological and secular ethical discourse, or that it weakens claims about divine reality.

9.4 Pluralism and Comparative Philosophy of Religion

Kaufman’s view that diverse religions are varied constructive responses to ultimate mystery has influenced pluralist approaches in philosophy of religion. His work is sometimes discussed alongside figures such as John Hick, though Kaufman places stronger emphasis on constructive imagination and historicism. This has encouraged philosophical explorations of how different religious symbol‑systems might be assessed without assuming any one as absolutely normative.

10. Ethics, Pluralism, and Public Theology

10.1 Ethical Criterion in Theology

Kaufman repeatedly insists that theology must be judged by its ethical fruits. Theological symbols shape attitudes toward self, others, and the non‑human world; therefore, their adequacy includes moral evaluation.

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“The adequacy of our talk about God must be judged, in the end, by the kind of human beings and communities it helps to shape.”

— Paraphrase of themes in In Face of Mystery

He applies this criterion to traditional doctrines—such as divine sovereignty or chosenness—that, in some historical contexts, have legitimated violence or exclusion.

10.2 Response to Historical Atrocities

Post‑Holocaust questions loom large in Kaufman’s ethics. He contends that images of God that seemed tolerable in earlier eras may become morally problematic in light of events like the Shoah or total war. This motivates his revisions of providence and omnipotence, as well as his wariness toward triumphalist or absolutist claims.

10.3 Religious Pluralism

Kaufman views religious traditions as multiple, historically conditioned symbolic responses to ultimate mystery. He advocates a stance of epistemic humility and dialogue rather than exclusivism. For him, pluralism does not render commitment impossible; it calls for a non‑absolutist adherence to one’s own tradition, aware of its constructive character and open to learning from others.

10.4 Public Theology and Democratic Discourse

In the public sphere, Kaufman argues that theological contributions must be intelligible and accountable to those who do not share specific faith commitments. Because theological claims are imaginative constructions, they can be translated into more general ethical and existential terms. This has positioned him within debates about public theology and religion in democratic societies.

Supporters see his approach as providing a bridge between religious and secular moral discourse, particularly around peace, justice, and ecological responsibility. Critics contend that such translation risks diluting distinctive theological content or subordinating revelation to public reason.

11. Reception, Criticisms, and Debates

11.1 Positive Reception

Kaufman’s work has been widely praised for its intellectual rigor, methodological self‑consciousness, and engagement with science and pluralism. Constructive and liberal theologians often credit him with offering one of the most sophisticated accounts of theology as imaginative construction. Many philosophers of religion value his contributions to debates on religious language and non‑realist or critical‑realist theism.

11.2 Critiques from Classical and Confessional Theologians

The most persistent criticisms come from more classically theistic or confessional perspectives:

Figures influenced by Barth or Catholic ressourcement theology often express such worries.

11.3 Debates with Radical and Liberation Theologies

Kaufman has also been engaged by radical, liberation, and feminist theologians. Some affirm his emphasis on ethical accountability and critique of oppressive images of God, but question whether his relatively abstract talk of “ultimate mystery” and “creativity” adequately addresses concrete structures of power, gender, race, and class. Others find his constructivism compatible with their attempts to reconstruct God‑language from marginalized perspectives.

11.4 Realism vs. Non‑Realism

Philosophical debates have focused on whether Kaufman’s position is best read as non‑realist (denying straightforward metaphysical reference) or critical‑realist (affirming an indirectly known reality). Some interpreters highlight his insistence on human construction to classify him as non‑realist; others point to his continued reference to an ultimate mystery and creativity “producing” the world as evidence of a modest realism. This ambiguity has generated extensive secondary literature.

11.5 Internal Critiques

Even sympathetic readers raise questions about the criteria he proposes: How are coherence, fit with science, and ethical impact to be weighed when they conflict? Who decides what counts as ethically adequate? These debates illustrate both the fruitfulness and the contested status of Kaufman’s methodological proposals.

12. Legacy and Historical Significance

12.1 Place in Twentieth‑ and Twenty‑First‑Century Theology

Kaufman is often regarded as a leading representative of North American constructive theology in the late twentieth century. His synthesis of historicism, hermeneutics, and engagement with science situates him alongside, but distinct from, figures such as Langdon Gilkey, Schubert Ogden, and David Tracy. Within this landscape, his consistent emphasis on imaginative construction gives his work a distinctive profile.

12.2 Influence on Subsequent Theological Movements

His legacy can be traced in several areas:

Scholars and students at Harvard Divinity School and beyond have developed variations on his constructive method, even when departing from specific conclusions.

12.3 Significance for Philosophy of Religion

In philosophy of religion, Kaufman’s work remains a touchstone for discussions of non‑realist theism, the symbolic nature of religious discourse, and the pragmatic assessment of religious belief. His proposals continue to be cited in debates over whether and how religious language can be meaningful and rational without metaphysical certitude.

12.4 Continuing Relevance and Ongoing Assessment

Kaufman’s stress on environmental responsibility and global interdependence has taken on added resonance amid accelerating climate change and globalization. His symbol of creativity offers one way of articulating a religious vision compatible with evolutionary science and ecological concern.

At the same time, ongoing scholarly assessment explores limitations of his project: questions about the balance between construction and revelation, the adequacy of his ethical criteria, and the viability of his position between realism and non‑realism. These continuing debates indicate that Kaufman’s work remains a significant reference point for theologians and philosophers grappling with the challenges of doing theology in a pluralistic, scientifically informed age.