Sallie Ann McFague

1. Introduction

Sallie Ann McFague (1933–2019) was a Christian theologian whose work reshaped late twentieth- and early twenty-first-century debates about God, language, and ecology. Best known for arguing that all God-language is metaphorical and model-based, she developed a systematic account of how religious metaphors function and why they matter ethically, politically, and environmentally.

Writing mostly from North American mainline Protestant contexts, McFague treated doctrines not as fixed propositions but as imaginative construals of divine–world relations. She explored how images such as God as king, mother, lover, or the world as God’s body highlight some aspects of reality while obscuring others, and how these images can either underwrite or challenge patterns of domination, consumerism, and ecological exploitation.

Her work is often associated with feminist theology and ecotheology, yet she drew on literary theory, pragmatism, liberation theologies, and panentheistic traditions as well. Proponents regard her as a key figure in moving theology toward ecological responsibility and climate ethics; critics from more classical, evangelical, or radical ecological perspectives question her use of metaphor, her doctrinal revisions, or the adequacy of her environmental proposals.

Across her career, McFague’s central concern remained the same: in a world marked by poverty, nuclear threat, and ecological crisis, what kinds of models of God are both theologically responsible and practically life-giving—for humans and for the wider Earth community?

2. Life and Historical Context

Sallie McFague was born on 25 May 1933 in Quincy, Massachusetts, and educated in mid-century New England Protestant settings that reflected the assumptions of liberal mainline Christianity. Her undergraduate years at Smith College (B.A. 1955), a women’s liberal arts college, coincided with nascent second-wave feminism and contributed to her later interest in gender, power, and language. She pursued theological studies at Yale Divinity School and completed a PhD in theology at Yale University in 1964, during a period when biblical criticism, neo-orthodoxy, and emerging secular theologies were all influential.

In 1970 she joined Vanderbilt Divinity School in Nashville, Tennessee, eventually becoming dean. Vanderbilt, a hub for progressive Protestant and liberationist thought, provided the institutional and intellectual environment in which she developed her theories of metaphor and later her ecological and feminist projects. In 2000 she moved to Canada as Distinguished Theologian-in-Residence at the Vancouver School of Theology, where her work increasingly intersected with global climate debates and the public discussion of consumer capitalism.

Historically, McFague’s career spanned major shifts in theology and society:

McFague’s writings repeatedly reference these contexts, framing doctrinal reflection as a response to what she called an “ecological, nuclear age.” She died in Vancouver, British Columbia, on 15 November 2019, at a time when climate ethics and ecotheology—fields she helped shape—were rapidly expanding.

3. Intellectual Development

McFague’s intellectual trajectory is often described in several overlapping phases, each marked by a distinct but related set of concerns.

Early Work: Religious Language and Parables

In the 1960s and early 1970s, drawing on literary criticism and hermeneutics, McFague focused on religious language, especially the parables of Jesus. Speaking in Parables (1975) treats parables as imaginative narratives that “re-describe” reality, preparing the ground for her later emphasis on metaphor as the primary mode of theology.

Metaphorical Theology and Models of God

By the late 1970s and early 1980s, her work crystallized into a theory of metaphorical theology, systematized in Metaphorical Theology (1982). Here she argued that all God-talk is metaphorical and model-dependent, influenced by scholars of metaphor such as Paul Ricoeur and Max Black, and by philosophical pragmatism. This phase sharpened her concern with the pragmatic and ethical consequences of doctrinal language.

Feminist and Liberationist Turn

In the 1980s, McFague’s exposure to feminist, womanist, and liberation theologies led her to question the political effects of prevailing models such as God as king, lord, and father. Models of God (1987) proposed new relational models (mother, lover, friend) explicitly aimed at supporting egalitarian and justice-oriented practices. Her work increasingly addressed how theological language legitimates or challenges systems of domination.

Ecotheological Reorientation

From the late 1980s onward, ecological crisis became central. In The Body of God (1993) and later writings she extended her metaphorical approach into a panentheistic, incarnational vision of the world as God’s body. This represented both a continuity (retaining the metaphor focus) and a shift toward cosmic and planetary scale concerns.

Public Theology and Economic Critique

In the 2000s, especially in Life Abundant (2001) and A New Climate for Theology (2008), McFague developed a more explicitly public theology, critiquing consumer capitalism and proposing “appropriate self-limitation” as a spiritual-ethical ideal. Scholars note that, while her earlier work was more methodological, her later phase emphasizes practical moral and policy implications of God-models in a warming world.

4. Major Works

McFague’s major books trace the development of her thought while addressing distinct problems.

Speaking in Parables: A Study in Metaphor and Theology (1975)

This early work analyzes the parables of Jesus as imaginative, world-opening stories. McFague contends that parables function not merely as moral illustrations but as “de-centering” narratives that challenge conventional perceptions of God and reality. The book established her reputation in theological hermeneutics.

Metaphorical Theology: Models of God in Religious Language (1982)

Here she offers a systematic account of religious metaphor. Drawing on contemporary philosophy of language, she argues that all God-talk is metaphorical and that models of God should be evaluated by criteria such as coherence, fruitfulness, and ethical impact. This volume is frequently cited in philosophy of religion discussions of religious language.

Models of God: Theology for an Ecological, Nuclear Age (1987)

Models of God applies the metaphor theory to late twentieth-century crises. McFague critiques monarchical and patriarchal models, proposing instead mother, lover, and friend as central metaphors. She links each model to specific ethical stances (nurture, erotic mutuality, companionship with the oppressed) and emphasizes ecological and nuclear dangers as testing grounds for God-images.

The Body of God: An Ecological Theology (1993)

Often considered her signature work, this book advances the model of the world as God’s body. McFague reinterprets creation, incarnation, and salvation in panentheistic terms, arguing that a body metaphor can correct dualistic, exploitative attitudes toward nature. The work is foundational in ecotheology and has influenced broader environmental humanities.

Life Abundant: Rethinking Theology and Economy for a Planet in Peril (2001)

In this volume she explicitly tackles global capitalism and consumerism, connecting theological imagination to economic structures. She proposes “abundant life” as redefined through simplicity, justice, and ecological sustainability, rather than material accumulation.

A New Climate for Theology: God, the World, and Global Warming (2008)

This later work addresses climate change directly. McFague engages climate science, public policy discourse, and Christian doctrine, arguing that panentheistic and incarnational models support robust climate ethics. The book functions as both a synthesis of her earlier ideas and an intervention in contemporary climate debates.

5. Core Ideas and Theological Models

McFague’s core ideas revolve around metaphor, models of God, and the reimagining of divine–world relations in light of contemporary crises.

Metaphorical and Model-Based God-Talk

Central for her is the claim that all language about God is metaphorical. Human beings, she argues, know God only through models—structured sets of metaphors such as king, shepherd, or mother. These models:

• Are partial and perspectival, not literal descriptions.
• Reveal some aspects of the divine while concealing others.
• Shape communities’ moral imaginations and practices.

Because models have ethical consequences, she holds they must be chosen and revised self-consciously.

Alternative Models of God

In Models of God, McFague develops three primary relational models, each with associated theological and ethical emphases:

Proponents view these models as correcting patriarchal, monarchical images; critics argue they risk romanticizing relations or underplaying divine transcendence.

World as God’s Body

Her most distinctive model, elaborated in The Body of God, presents the world as God’s body. Within a panentheistic framework, God is understood as intimately present in all creatures while exceeding them. This model reinterprets:

• Creation as God’s ongoing self-expression in a material universe.
• Incarnation as paradigmatic of God’s embodied involvement in the world, not limited to Jesus but focused in him.
• Salvation as the flourishing of the whole Earth community, not solely human souls.

Supporters regard this as a powerful ecotheological vision; some theologians, however, question whether the model blurs divine–world distinction or conflicts with classical doctrines of transcendence.

Throughout, McFague emphasizes that no single model is exhaustive; a plurality of metaphors is, in her view, necessary to approximate the complexity of the divine mystery.

6. Methodology and Use of Metaphor

McFague’s methodology is built around a sophisticated theory of metaphor and models derived from literary theory and pragmatist philosophy.

Metaphor as Cognitive and Imaginative

Drawing on thinkers such as Max Black and Paul Ricoeur, she treats metaphors not as mere ornaments but as cognitively significant. Metaphors, she argues, create “new meaning” by juxtaposing disparate domains (e.g., God/king, God/mother), thereby generating fresh insights into both.

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“All language about God is metaphorical; the question is not whether we use metaphors, but which ones we choose and why.”

This perspective rejects both naïve literalism (the idea that doctrinal language straightforwardly describes God) and pure non-cognitivism (the claim that religious language is only expressive or emotive).

Models and Their Evaluation

For McFague, models are extended metaphors that organize experience and doctrine. She proposes criteria for assessing theological models:

She insists that evaluation is never neutral; it always reflects particular communities’ values and contexts.

Contextual and Pragmatic Orientation

McFague adopts a contextual and pragmatic stance. Contextual, because models arise in specific historical situations (e.g., feudal societies, consumer capitalism); pragmatic, because their truth is intertwined with the kind of world they help bring about. She often frames the methodological question as: “What kind of world does this model imply and encourage?”

Proponents see this as an interdisciplinary method that brings theology into dialogue with social sciences and ecology. Critics argue that tying theological adequacy so closely to ethical or pragmatic outcomes risks subordinating doctrinal content to contemporary values.

Use of Narrative and Parable

Her method also assigns a central role to narrative. Continuing themes from Speaking in Parables, she maintains that stories—biblical parables, contemporary case studies—are crucial vehicles for testing and communicating models. In this sense, theology becomes an exercise in imaginative construal rather than abstract system-building, a stance that has appealed to homileticians, educators, and ethicists.

7. Ecological and Feminist Contributions

McFague is widely cited for integrating ecological and feminist concerns into systematic theology through her metaphorical framework.

Ecological Theology

Her ecological contribution centers on reinterpreting Christian doctrines under conditions of planetary crisis. Key elements include:

• World as God’s body: This model portrays all creatures as participating in God’s embodied life, challenging dualisms that separate spirit from matter and God from nature.
• Panentheistic orientation: She positions her view between classical theism and pantheism, suggesting that the world is “in God” while God also transcends it.
• Ethic of “appropriate self-limitation”: Particularly in Life Abundant, she argues that affluent societies must voluntarily restrain consumption so others (human and non-human) may live.

Proponents in ecotheology see her work as pioneering, especially in connecting doctrine with climate change, species loss, and economic structures. Some environmental philosophers and theologians, however, maintain that her proposals either do not go far enough in critiquing industrial civilization or remain too tied to Christian imagery to be globally applicable.

Feminist Theology

McFague’s feminist contributions emerge most clearly in Models of God and related essays:

• She critiques patriarchal and monarchical God-images (father, lord, king) for reinforcing male-dominated, hierarchical social orders.
• She advances maternal, erotic, and friendly metaphors (mother, lover, friend) meant to foster egalitarian, mutual, and nurturing relationships.
• She aligns her work with feminist, womanist, and liberation theologians in arguing that God-images are political—they legitimize or challenge social structures.

Feminist theologians often credit her with providing a systematic, metaphor-focused rationale for revising God-language, complementing more historical or experiential feminist approaches. Critics from within feminism sometimes question whether her alternative metaphors remain tied to problematic gender essentialism or whether they sufficiently address intersectional dynamics of race, class, and colonialism.

Interrelation of Ecology and Feminism

A hallmark of her later work is the linkage between ecological and feminist insights: hierarchical, masculinist models of God and humanity are seen as underwriting both patriarchy and ecological domination. By proposing relational and bodily metaphors, she aims to support an ethos of mutuality and care across gender and species boundaries.

8. Impact on Philosophy of Religion and Environmental Ethics

McFague’s influence extends beyond theology into philosophy of religion, environmental ethics, and related interdisciplinary fields.

Philosophy of Religion

Her development of metaphorical theology provided philosophers of religion with an alternative to traditional debates over religious language. Rather than asking whether doctrinal statements are literally true, many scholars engaged her proposal that:

• Religious concepts function as models: imaginative constructs with partial cognitive value.
• The adequacy of models may be evaluated using pragmatic and ethical criteria alongside coherence.

This approach has been used in discussions of:

• The status of religious belief in a pluralistic world.
• The cognitive content of metaphors about God.
• The relationship between doctrinal claims and lived practices.

Some analytic philosophers appreciate her nuanced account of metaphor but question whether her pragmatic criteria adequately secure truth claims. Others adopt her framework to argue for a more modest, practice-oriented understanding of religious commitment.

Environmental Ethics

In environmental ethics, McFague’s world as God’s body model has been influential in articulating religious bases for ecocentrism or at least strong anthropocentric restraint. Ethicists and ecophilosophers draw on her work to:

• Argue that metaphysical pictures of God and world shape attitudes toward non-human nature.
• Ground moral considerability for ecosystems and species in a panentheistic worldview.
• Connect individual lifestyle choices (consumption, transportation, energy use) to theological visions of “abundant life.”

Her ethic of “appropriate self-limitation” and critique of consumer capitalism have been discussed in debates about environmental justice, climate responsibility, and intergenerational ethics. Some ethicists welcome the explicitly theological motivation; others contend that environmental ethics should rest on secular or pluralist foundations and view her proposals as primarily relevant within Christian communities.

Interdisciplinary Reception

McFague’s work has also been cited in:

• Religious studies discussions on the political implications of sacred imagery.
• Environmental humanities research on narrative, imagination, and climate crisis.
• Public theology, particularly within church bodies responding to global warming.

Overall, she is frequently referenced as a major figure in demonstrating how theological imagination can intersect with philosophical reflection to address urgent environmental and social issues.

9. Criticisms and Debates

McFague’s proposals have generated substantial debate across theological and philosophical spectra. Critiques cluster around several themes.

Metaphor and Truth

Some theologians and philosophers of religion argue that her strong emphasis on metaphor risks undermining robust truth claims about God. From more classical or evangelical perspectives, critics contend that:

• Biblical and doctrinal statements include literal or analogical content, not just metaphors.
• Overstating metaphorical indeterminacy may weaken doctrinal stability and confessional identity.

In response, sympathetic interpreters note that McFague affirms cognitive content but relocates it within model-based and analogical discourse, though the sufficiency of this move remains debated.

Doctrinal Concerns and Panentheism

Her world as God’s body model and panentheistic orientation have raised questions about:

• Divine transcendence: Some worry that the model blurs the distinction between God and world, tending toward pantheism.
• Christology: Critics ask whether expanding incarnation to cosmic embodiment diminishes the uniqueness of Jesus Christ.
• Providence and suffering: If the world is God’s body, it is queried how natural evil and suffering should be understood in relation to God.

Classical theists often find her reconstructions insufficiently continuous with historic creeds, while process and panentheistic theologians tend to be more receptive but may still dispute specific formulations.

Feminist and Liberationist Critiques

Within feminist theology, some scholars appreciate her alternative metaphors yet argue that:

• Maternal or erotic imagery can inadvertently reinforce gender stereotypes.
• Her work could more fully integrate intersectional analyses of race, class, and colonial power.
• Economic and political structures, though engaged, might require more radical systemic critique than her ethic of self-limitation implies.

Liberation theologians focused on structural injustice sometimes question whether metaphorical shifts alone can adequately confront entrenched economic and political systems.

Ecological Adequacy

Environmental philosophers and activists debate how far her theology can guide concrete policy or activism. Some maintain that:

• Her emphasis on personal and communal lifestyle change may underplay the need for systemic political and technological transformation.
• Strong religious language may limit appeal in secular or multi-religious contexts, though others see this as a necessary particularity rather than a flaw.

These debates illustrate the contested yet generative status of McFague’s work, with many commentators acknowledging its pioneering nature while proposing modifications or alternative frameworks.

10. Legacy and Historical Significance

McFague is widely regarded as a pivotal figure in late twentieth-century theology, particularly for her integration of metaphor theory, feminist critique, and ecological concern.

Influence within Theology

In systematic and constructive theology, she is credited with:

• Making metaphorical and model-based thinking a central methodological issue.
• Providing a widely cited rationale for revising God-language in response to gender justice and ecological crisis.
• Contributing foundational texts in ecotheology, especially The Body of God, which many scholars treat as a landmark.

Her work has influenced curricula in seminaries and divinity schools, especially in courses on doctrine, ethics, and preaching, where her approaches to narrative and metaphor are employed pedagogically.

Impact on Wider Religious and Ethical Discourse

McFague’s ideas have also:

• Informed church statements on the environment, particularly within mainline Protestant and ecumenical bodies.
• Shaped Christian environmental movements, which draw on her panentheistic imagery and ethic of self-limitation.
• Entered interdisciplinary conversations in religious studies, environmental humanities, and philosophy concerning the power of religious imagery to shape ecological attitudes.

Ongoing Assessment

Since her death in 2019, scholarly reassessment has highlighted both the historical situatedness of her work—within mainline North American Protestantism and second-wave feminism—and its continuing relevance as climate change accelerates. Some newer theologians build on her insights while extending them toward more explicitly intersectional, decolonial, or interreligious frameworks. Others engage her metaphor theory in debates over postmodern and analytic approaches to religious language.

Overall, McFague’s legacy lies in demonstrating how theological imagination, carefully analyzed and ethically assessed, can respond to planetary crisis, and in leaving a body of work that continues to provoke constructive debate about God, language, and the fate of the Earth.