Apology of Socrates to the Jury
Xenophon’s Apology of Socrates to the Jury offers a concise, largely indirect account of Socrates’ demeanor and reasoning at his trial, emphasizing his divine sign, his readiness to face death, and his moral superiority to his accusers. Rather than giving a full, dramatic courtroom dialogue, Xenophon presents a brief narrative that defends Socrates against charges of impiety and corruption, arguing that Socrates accepted the death sentence as preferable to a life incompatible with his philosophical mission and piety.
At a Glance
- Author
- Xenophon of Athens
- Composed
- c. 360–355 BCE
- Language
- Ancient Greek
- Status
- copies only
- •Socrates’ readiness for death as philosophically and morally appropriate: Xenophon argues that Socrates saw death as preferable to the decline, infirmity, and potential loss of intellectual integrity that age would bring, and thus did not fear or try strongly to avoid the death sentence.
- •The divine sign (daimonion) as evidence of Socrates’ piety: Socrates’ habitual reliance on a divine sign, which never opposed his actions during the trial, is taken by Xenophon as a crucial indication that Socrates acted in accordance with divine will rather than impiety.
- •Socrates’ moral superiority to his accusers: The work emphasizes that Socrates lived a life of justice, moderation, and beneficence toward his companions, contrasting sharply with the character and motives of his accusers, who are depicted as malicious and self-interested.
- •Reinterpretation of ‘corrupting the youth’: Xenophon presents Socrates as improving rather than corrupting the young, training them in self-control, justice, and critical reflection, so that the charge of corruption is undermined by evidence of his beneficial influence.
- •Socrates’ refusal to flatter the jury or to beg for acquittal: Xenophon underscores that Socrates deliberately avoided emotional appeals, flattery, or displays of supplication, insisting that it would be shameful and inconsistent with his lifelong pursuit of virtue to seek acquittal by unphilosophical means.
Xenophon’s Apology is historically important as one of the few surviving primary sources on Socrates’ trial and death, complementing and sometimes diverging from Plato’s Apology. It offers a more compact, apologetic narrative that foregrounds Socrates’ practical wisdom, piety, and calculated acceptance of death, thereby shaping later understandings of Socrates as a moral exemplar and clarifying Xenophon’s distinctive, more pragmatic portrait of his teacher. The work also illuminates how different members of the Socratic circle sought to defend and appropriate Socrates’ legacy in the decades after his execution.
1. Introduction
Xenophon’s Apology of Socrates to the Jury is a brief prose work that offers an alternative account of Socrates’ trial and death to the better‑known Apology of Plato. While it covers some of the same ground—Socrates’ response to the charges of impiety and corrupting the youth—Xenophon’s text is more compact, more openly apologetic, and less concerned with reproducing a verbatim courtroom speech than with explaining Socrates’ attitude and choices.
The work is usually classified as a Socratic defense rather than a dialogue. Xenophon presents himself as clarifying why Socrates neither feared the death penalty nor exerted himself to avoid it. He highlights Socrates’ confidence in divine guidance, his lifelong moral conduct, and his refusal to employ emotional or manipulative tactics before the jury.
Modern readers and scholars often approach Xenophon’s Apology in tandem with Plato’s, treating it as one of the few independent testimonies about the trial. Debate continues over how far it preserves historical reminiscence versus offering a retrospective, idealized portrait of Socrates that aligns with Xenophon’s broader project of vindicating his teacher.
2. Historical Context of Socrates’ Trial
Socrates was tried and executed in 399 BCE, shortly after a turbulent period in Athenian history marked by the Peloponnesian War, the oligarchic rule of the Thirty Tyrants, and the restoration of democracy. Many interpreters link the charges against him—impiety and corrupting the youth—to anxieties about civic stability, religious observance, and the perceived influence of intellectuals on politics.
Political and Social Background
| Factor | Relevance to the Trial |
|---|---|
| Peloponnesian War defeat (404 BCE) | Heightened concern about internal enemies and unpatriotic influences. |
| Rule of the Thirty Tyrants | Several of Socrates’ associates (e.g., Critias) were linked to the oligarchs, fueling suspicion. |
| Democratic restoration | Democratic leaders may have been wary of figures seen as anti‑democratic or religiously unorthodox. |
Legal and Religious Setting
The formal indictment accused Socrates of not believing in the gods of the city, of introducing new divinities, and of corrupting the youth. Scholars differ on whether these charges were primarily religious, political, or a blend of both:
- Some argue the trial was essentially a religious prosecution, targeting deviations from traditional cult and reverence.
- Others emphasize political subtext, suggesting Socrates functioned as a scapegoat for broader resentments about elitist or anti‑democratic intellectual circles.
- A third view presents the case as a hybrid, in which religious and civic norms were inseparable, making Socrates’ teachings appear threatening on multiple fronts.
Xenophon’s Apology presupposes this background but focuses on Socrates’ personal piety and conduct rather than on detailed political circumstances.
3. Author and Composition of Xenophon’s Apology
Xenophon of Athens (c. 430–354 BCE) was a soldier, historian, and member of Socrates’ circle. His Apology of Socrates to the Jury belongs to a set of Socratic writings that includes the Memorabilia, Oeconomicus, and Symposium. These texts collectively aim to defend Socrates’ character and teaching.
Date and Circumstances of Composition
Most scholars date the Apology to c. 360–355 BCE, several decades after the trial and after Xenophon had begun or completed the Memorabilia. The work appears to respond both to public memory of Socrates and to other written accounts, particularly Plato’s. Xenophon states or implies that some earlier depictions had not adequately explained why Socrates embraced his death.
Relation to Other Works
There is debate about whether the Apology is:
- A standalone pamphlet, designed as a concise public defense of Socrates’ behavior at trial.
- An appendix or companion to the Memorabilia, elaborating especially on Socrates’ final decision and the role of the divine sign.
Textual and stylistic overlap with the Memorabilia has led some scholars to view it as a later supplement, while others treat it as an independent but closely related composition within Xenophon’s larger apologetic project.
4. Structure and Organization of the Work
Xenophon’s Apology is notably short—often occupying only a few pages in modern editions—and lacks the elaborate dramatic framing of Plato’s dialogue. Its structure is typically understood as a concise, thematically organized narrative rather than a full trial transcript.
Main Structural Components
| Part (approx.) | Content Focus |
|---|---|
| Opening section | Xenophon’s own statement of purpose and explanation for writing. |
| Early middle | Socrates’ reasoning about death and old age; presentation of his deliberate acceptance of the verdict. |
| Central sections | Discussion of the divine sign (daimonion) and Socrates’ piety; summary refutation of charges and portrayal of accusers. |
| Later middle | Description of Socrates’ demeanor and choices before the jury (refusal to supplicate, avoidance of emotional appeals). |
| Closing remarks | Xenophon’s evaluative comments on Socrates’ virtue and on the fittingness of his death. |
Narrative Voice and Method
Xenophon writes mostly in indirect discourse, narrating Socrates’ arguments rather than presenting extended verbatim speech. Scholars note that this organizational choice:
- Emphasizes explanation over dramatization, centering on why Socrates acted as he did.
- Allows Xenophon to insert authorial comments, linking the trial scenes to broader themes of character and divine favor.
Some interpreters describe the overall organization as ring‑like or thematic rather than strictly chronological, since motifs such as piety and moral integrity recur across different sections in a non‑linear fashion.
5. Central Arguments and Key Concepts
Xenophon’s Apology condenses Socrates’ defense into a small number of interrelated arguments, each tied to key concepts that recur across Xenophon’s Socratic works.
Readiness for Death and View of Old Age
A central argument is that Socrates did not fear death and even regarded it as preferable to a future of physical decline and potential moral or intellectual impairment. Xenophon portrays Socrates as reasoning that a timely death can be a form of benefit granted by the gods, preserving a person’s virtue and reputation.
The Divine Sign (Daimonion) and Piety
Another major theme is the daimonion, Socrates’ inner divine sign. Xenophon stresses that during the trial the sign did not oppose Socrates’ decisions, which he takes as evidence of divine approval:
The divine sign did not oppose him in anything he did, whether in speech or in deed.
This motif supports an image of Socrates as deeply pious, contrary to the legal charge of impiety.
Moral Character and Influence on Youth
Xenophon also argues that Socrates’ habitual instruction promoted self‑control, justice, and prudence. The key concept of “corruption of the youth” is inverted: the young men who associated with Socrates allegedly became more disciplined and civic‑minded, undermining the plausibility of the prosecution’s claim.
Integrity Before the Jury
Finally, Xenophon emphasizes Socrates’ refusal to flatter or beg the jurors, presenting this as consistent with a lifelong commitment to virtue and truthfulness. The concept of shame (aidōs) plays a role here: Socrates maintains that it would be shameful to seek acquittal through unworthy means, even to preserve his life.
6. Legacy and Historical Significance
Xenophon’s Apology has played a significant role in shaping later understandings of Socrates, particularly as a complement and counterpoint to Plato’s account.
Place in the Socratic Tradition
The work is one of the few independent ancient testimonies about the trial and has been used by historians and philosophers to:
- Cross‑check or complicate Plato’s narrative.
- Reconstruct a more pragmatic, ethical Socrates, focused on everyday virtue and piety.
Some scholars argue that Xenophon helps preserve elements of the “historical Socrates” neglected by Plato; others see his portrait as simplifying or moralizing Socrates’ philosophy.
Reception and Use
| Period | Typical Use of Xenophon’s Apology |
|---|---|
| Antiquity | Cited alongside Plato as evidence for Socrates’ character; used by later writers interested in moral exempla. |
| Early modern era | Employed by Christian apologists and moralists as a model of virtuous death and piety. |
| Modern scholarship | Analyzed for its historiographical value, theological themes, and its relation to Xenophon’s broader corpus. |
Ongoing Debates
The work’s brevity and indirect style have generated discussion about:
- Its historical reliability relative to Plato’s more detailed dialogue.
- Whether Xenophon’s stress on the divine sign and acceptance of death reflects Socrates’ own outlook or Xenophon’s apologetic and theological agenda.
- How the text participates in a literary rivalry within the Socratic circle, offering a distinct interpretation of Socrates’ motives and final stance.
Despite these debates, the Apology remains a key source for understanding the diversity of ancient perspectives on Socrates’ trial and the early formation of his philosophical legacy.
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title = {apology-of-socrates-to-the-jury},
author = {Philopedia},
year = {2025},
url = {https://philopedia.com/works/apology-of-socrates-to-the-jury/},
urldate = {December 11, 2025}
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