Process and Reality: An Essay in Cosmology
Process and Reality presents Alfred North Whitehead’s mature metaphysical system, known as “process philosophy” or “process-relational metaphysics.” Rejecting substance-based and mechanistic models of reality, Whitehead argues that the fundamental units of existence are momentary “actual occasions” of experience, organized into “societies” and related through processes of “prehension.” He proposes a comprehensive “philosophy of organism” in which becoming rather than static being is primary, and in which God functions as both the primordial source of possibilities and a consequent, evolving receptacle of the world’s achievements. The work develops a speculative cosmology addressing categories of existence, the nature of space-time, causation, perception, value, and the relation between God and the world, in critical dialogue with classical, modern, and early 20th‑century science and philosophy.
At a Glance
- Author
- Alfred North Whitehead
- Composed
- 1924–1928
- Language
- English
- Status
- copies only
- •Reality as Process: Whitehead contends that the fundamental character of reality is processual becoming rather than enduring substances; the basic units of actuality are “actual occasions” (or “actual entities”), each a momentary act of experience that arises, achieves a determinate form, and perishes, rather than persisting things with intrinsic, static essences.
- •Philosophy of Organism vs. Materialism: Against mechanistic materialism and dualism, Whitehead advances a “philosophy of organism” in which every actual occasion exhibits a kind of experiential or experiential-like character; matter is reconceived as patterns of interrelated processes, and mind–body or subject–object distinctions are derivative, emergent structures within an organic, relational field.
- •Prehension and Causation: Whitehead replaces traditional efficient causation and external relations with the concept of “prehension,” a mode of internal relatedness whereby each actual occasion feels, takes account of, and integrates the data of past occasions into its own becoming, so that causation is a process of internalization and synthesis rather than an external push or impact.
- •God and the World: Whitehead argues for a dipolar conception of God, with a primordial nature that envisages and orders the realm of eternal objects (pure possibilities) and a consequent nature that feels and preserves the concrete achievements of the world; God is neither an omnipotent creator ex nihilo nor a merely passive ideal, but the supreme instance of process that lures finite occasions toward richer realizations of value.
- •Critique of “Misplaced Concreteness” and Scientific Abstractions: Whitehead criticizes the “fallacy of misplaced concreteness,” the error of taking abstract scientific constructs—such as simple location in Euclidean space or point-instant physics—as literally constituting reality; instead he argues that such abstractions are useful but partial ways of expressing a richer concrete world of interwoven experiential processes.
Process and Reality has become the foundational text of process philosophy and process theology, exerting lasting influence on metaphysics, philosophy of religion, ecological thought, and constructive theology. It provided one of the 20th century’s most comprehensive alternative systems to both classical substance metaphysics and reductionist naturalism, inspiring figures such as Charles Hartshorne, John B. Cobb Jr., and David Ray Griffin. The work has also been mined for resources in environmental ethics, science-religion dialogue, and relational and panexperientialist approaches to mind and nature.
1. Introduction
Process and Reality: An Essay in Cosmology is Alfred North Whitehead’s most systematic statement of his mature metaphysics, often referred to as process philosophy or the philosophy of organism. The work proposes that the ultimate constituents of the universe are not enduring substances but fleeting “actual occasions” of becoming, whose relations and patterns generate the world of persons, organisms, and physical objects.
Whitehead’s treatise aims to construct a comprehensive cosmology that can integrate common experience, modern science (especially relativity and early quantum theory), and religious and ethical concerns within a single metaphysical scheme. He characterizes this enterprise as speculative philosophy, seeking the most general categories that can coherently interpret every type of fact.
Several intertwined themes organize the book:
- A shift from being to becoming, presenting reality as an ongoing “creative advance.”
- A detailed analysis of experience, extended beyond human consciousness to all levels of nature.
- A reconceptualization of causation and relation through the technical notion of prehension.
- An account of possibility and order via eternal objects and the Category of the Ultimate.
- A dipolar conception of God, in which the divine is both the ordering source of possibilities and the receptive, evolving companion of the world.
Interpreters disagree about how to classify the work: some view it as an ambitious but idiosyncratic system comparable to classical metaphysics, others as an alternative to both analytic and continental traditions, and still others as a resource for theology, environmental thought, or philosophy of science. Nevertheless, Process and Reality is widely regarded as the cornerstone of 20th‑century process thought and a major attempt to rethink metaphysics after the scientific revolutions of modernity.
2. Historical and Intellectual Context
2.1 Philosophical Background
Whitehead wrote Process and Reality in a period marked by the rise of analytic philosophy and logical positivism, but his project remained closer in ambition to classical metaphysics. He engages critically with:
| Tradition / Figure | Relevance for Process and Reality |
|---|---|
| Plato and Aristotle | Models for systematic metaphysics; sources for forms, teleology |
| Descartes and Locke | Targets for critique of substance dualism and representationalism |
| Hume and empiricism | Influences on his attention to experience, but rejected on causation |
| Kant | Precedent for categorial schemes, though Whitehead denies a priori forms |
| British Idealism | Background for holistic and relational thinking |
Proponents of a “systematic” reading emphasize his continuity with these traditions; others stress his divergence from both idealism and early analytic philosophy.
2.2 Scientific and Mathematical Context
Whitehead’s earlier work in mathematics and logic (notably Principia Mathematica with Bertrand Russell) and in philosophy of science (e.g., The Concept of Nature) shapes his metaphysics. He responds to:
- Newtonian mechanics, particularly the ideas of absolute space, time, and simple location.
- Einstein’s relativity, which he sees as supporting a relational, event-based ontology.
- Early quantum theory, which he interprets as revealing indeterminacy and discrete events.
Some commentators argue that Whitehead builds a metaphysics that could undergird a future, more unified science; others claim his system depends on now-outdated physical theories.
2.3 Intellectual Climate and Religion
The Gifford Lectures (1927–1928) that became Process and Reality were intended to explore natural theology. Whitehead thus writes against the backdrop of debates over:
- The viability of theism after World War I.
- The relationship between science and religion.
- The status of values in a seemingly mechanistic universe.
Where many contemporaries moved toward logical empiricism or anti-metaphysical stances, Whitehead reopens metaphysical and theological questions, proposing a God compatible, in his view, with scientific naturalism. Critics regard this move as a regression to speculative metaphysics; supporters see it as a creative alternative to both traditional theism and reductive naturalism.
3. Author and Composition of Process and Reality
3.1 Whitehead’s Trajectory Prior to the Book
Alfred North Whitehead (1861–1947) was trained as a mathematician and achieved prominence through his work in algebra, logic, and especially Principia Mathematica (1910–1913, with Russell). Around 1914–1920, he gradually shifted toward philosophy of nature, producing works such as An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Natural Knowledge (1919) and The Concept of Nature (1920). These writings already hint at an event-based and relational ontology.
After moving to Harvard in 1924, Whitehead turned explicitly to metaphysics and religion, publishing Science and the Modern World (1925) and Religion in the Making (1926). Commentators often treat these as preparatory steps toward the fully systematic cosmology of Process and Reality.
3.2 Gifford Lectures and Writing Process
Process and Reality largely derives from Whitehead’s Gifford Lectures at the University of Edinburgh (1927–1928). The lectures were subsequently revised and expanded into book form. Scholars such as Lewis S. Ford have examined surviving notes and related materials to trace the evolution of key concepts—actual occasions, prehension, and God’s dipolar nature—across drafts and lectures.
The composition appears to have been:
| Phase | Approximate Period | Features |
|---|---|---|
| Pre-Gifford preparatory work | 1924–1926 | Development of philosophy of organism |
| Delivery of Gifford Lectures | 1927–1928 | Initial public articulation of the system |
| Book revision and expansion | 1928–1929 | Technical refinements, reordering, additions |
Some interpreters argue that the resulting text bears traces of this layered genesis, contributing to its complexity and occasional inconsistencies.
3.3 Whitehead’s Aims in Composition
Whitehead explicitly aimed to construct a “coherent, logical, necessary system of general ideas” adequate to interpret all experience. He sought to:
- Regularize and extend themes from his earlier works into a single categoreal scheme.
- Offer an alternative to both mechanistic materialism and subjectivist idealism.
- Provide a framework within which discussions of God, value, and science could be integrated.
Debate continues about how unified the final product is. Some commentators claim that Whitehead’s evolving ideas on God, eternal objects, and creativity produce tensions within the text; others maintain that these developments show a productive, open-ended system rather than a fixed doctrine.
4. Publication History and Textual Status
4.1 First Edition and Early Printings
Process and Reality was first published in 1929 by Macmillan (New York) and Cambridge University Press (Cambridge). The initial text contained numerous typographical errors, misprints, and some editorial decisions that later scholars judged to be problematic, especially in highly technical passages.
Early reception was limited, and reprints were modest. However, the book gradually became central within process philosophy and process theology, generating demand for more reliable editions.
4.2 The Corrected “Standard” Edition
In 1978, David Ray Griffin and Donald W. Sherburne edited a corrected edition, published by the Free Press, widely regarded as the standard scholarly text. Their work involved:
- Collating the 1929 edition with other sources (including lecture notes and typescripts where available).
- Correcting obvious misprints and restoring likely intended wording.
- Standardizing pagination and references.
The corrected edition is typically cited as:
Whitehead, Process and Reality: An Essay in Cosmology, corrected edition, ed. Griffin and Sherburne (New York: Free Press, 1978).
Scholars differ somewhat on the extent to which the editors’ emendations reconstruct Whitehead’s intentions. Some praise the edition as indispensable; others urge caution where emendations rest on interpretive judgment rather than hard evidence.
4.3 Textual Status and Ongoing Debates
The textual tradition is relatively simple compared to many classic works: there is a single major authorial publication and one dominant critical edition. Nonetheless, several issues remain:
| Issue | Scholarly Discussion |
|---|---|
| Degree of editorial intervention | Some argue for minimal correction; others favor more reconstruction |
| Use of lecture notes and drafts | Debated as to whether they should inform future critical editions |
| Citation practices | Most contemporary work follows corrected edition pagination |
There is no widely used variorum or bilingual critical edition, though translations into French, German, Spanish, Portuguese, and other languages have facilitated international scholarship. Some commentators note that translation choices, particularly for key terms like prehension, concrescence, or creativity, can significantly shape non-English receptions of the work.
5. Structure and Organization of the Work
5.1 Five-Part Architecture
Whitehead organizes Process and Reality into five main parts, each with a distinct role in the exposition of his system:
| Part | Title | Primary Focus |
|---|---|---|
| I | The Speculative Scheme | Aims of metaphysics, basic categories, Category of the Ultimate |
| II | Discussion of Categoreal Schemes | Critical comparison with rival metaphysics and clarification of his own |
| III | The Theory of Prehensions | Technical account of prehensions and concrescence |
| IV | The Theory of Extensions | Analysis of spatial-temporal structures and extensive connection |
| V | Final Interpretation | Interpretation of the scheme in terms of value and God |
This structure moves from general method and categories through detailed ontology to broader interpretive implications.
5.2 Interweaving of Exposition and Critique
The book alternates between:
- Systematic exposition of Whitehead’s own scheme (especially Parts I, III, IV, V).
- Critical engagement with other thinkers (especially Part II, but also scattered throughout).
Readers and commentators often remark that this interweaving, together with Whitehead’s practice of revisiting concepts from new angles, produces a non-linear, spiral structure rather than a straightforward textbook progression.
5.3 Internal Cross-Referencing and Difficulty
Whitehead relies heavily on internal cross-references, technical definitions, and categoreal lists. Concepts introduced briefly in Part I (such as actual entities, prehensions, and eternal objects) are developed in depth only later. Many commentators therefore recommend reading the work with secondary aids or glossaries.
Some scholars propose dividing the text into:
- A relatively introductory and methodological core (Part I and select sections).
- A highly technical middle (Parts III and IV).
- A more synthetic and theological closing (Part V).
Others argue that such simplifications risk obscuring the systematic interdependence of all parts. Nonetheless, the formal organization establishes a trajectory from method to categories, micro-ontology, macro-structure, and finally religious and axiological interpretation.
6. Speculative Method and Categoreal Scheme
6.1 Speculative Philosophy
Whitehead characterizes Process and Reality as an exercise in speculative philosophy, which he describes as the attempt to frame a coherent, logical, and necessary system of general ideas that can interpret every element of experience. This method is:
- Coherent: the categories must be mutually consistent.
- Logical: they must admit rigorous inference.
- Necessary: they must be required, not optional, for explaining experience as a whole.
He contrasts this with both purely empirical description and anti-metaphysical positivism. Critics suggest that his standards of “necessity” and “coherence” are themselves metaphysical assumptions; defenders argue that such assumptions are unavoidable for any global interpretation of experience.
6.2 Categoreal Scheme
Whitehead’s categoreal scheme consists of:
- Categories of Existence (e.g., actual entities, eternal objects, prehensions, nexus).
- Categories of Explanation (e.g., eight “categoreal obligations” governing concrescence).
- The Category of the Ultimate (creativity, the many, the one).
He insists that these categories are empirically derived in a broad sense, abstracted from experience but tested by whether they can interpret new domains without contradiction. Some interpreters view this as a form of “empirical metaphysics”; others contend that the derivation is too loose to warrant empirical status.
6.3 Criteria of Adequacy
Whitehead proposes several criteria for evaluating a speculative scheme:
| Criterion | Description |
|---|---|
| Coherence | Internal consistency among categories and principles |
| Logicality | Susceptibility to rational development and inference |
| Adequacy | Ability to interpret diverse kinds of experience and evidence |
| Applicability | Fruitfulness in relation to science, ethics, religion |
He also warns against the “fallacy of misplaced concreteness”, where abstractions are mistaken for concrete realities. His method seeks to balance abstraction with fidelity to the richness of experience.
Commentators diverge on whether his categoreal scheme successfully meets these criteria. Some see it as a powerful, if unconventional, alternative to substance metaphysics; others regard it as an elaborate but speculative construction lacking independent justification.
7. Actual Occasions, Concrescence, and Prehension
7.1 Actual Occasions as Basic Units
In Process and Reality, actual occasions (or actual entities) are the ultimate constituents of reality. Each is a momentary event of experience or “drop of experience” that arises, achieves a determinate form, and perishes. Whitehead holds that:
- Enduring objects (e.g., stones, organisms) are structured societies of many such occasions.
- There is no underlying substance persisting through change; persistence is a pattern of successive occasions.
Some interpreters regard this as a form of event ontology; others align it with panexperientialism, attributing experiential character to all actual occasions.
7.2 Concrescence: The Process of Becoming One
Concrescence is the internal process by which an actual occasion comes into being. Whitehead describes it as the many becoming one, culminating in a satisfaction. Key features include:
- The occasion begins as a subject inheriting data from prior occasions.
- Through stages (often schematized as physical feeling, conceptual feeling, integration), it unifies these data.
- It terminates in a determinate outcome that then becomes a datum for future occasions.
Scholars differ on how literally to take the temporal or “phase-like” language: some see concrescence as a logical order of dependence, others as a micro-temporal process.
7.3 Prehension: Internal Relatedness and Causation
Prehension is Whitehead’s technical term for the basic way in which one actual occasion “feels” or takes account of another. A prehension has:
- A subject (the becoming occasion),
- A datum (what is prehended),
- A subjective form (how it is felt).
Whitehead distinguishes:
| Type of Prehension | Description |
|---|---|
| Physical | Feeling of past actual occasions |
| Conceptual | Feeling of eternal objects (pure possibilities) |
Prehensions may be positive (including data) or negative (excluding data). Causation is reconceived as the transmission of patterns through such internal relations.
Interpretive debates center on whether prehension is best read as a metaphysical analogue of perception, as a generalized causal relation, or as an essentially phenomenological notion extended to nature. Critics sometimes question the intelligibility of attributing prehension to microphysical events; proponents see it as a way to unify mental and physical processes within one relational framework.
8. Eternal Objects, Creativity, and the Category of the Ultimate
8.1 Eternal Objects: Pure Possibilities
Eternal objects are Whitehead’s term for pure possibilities or forms of definiteness that can be “ingressed” into actual occasions to give them qualitative character (such as colors, shapes, mathematical structures). They are:
- Neither mental constructions nor actual entities.
- Analogous to Platonic forms, though Whitehead emphasizes their role in concrete processes of becoming.
Interpretations vary: some see eternal objects as a realist ontology of possibilities; others treat them as necessary abstractions from patterns found in experience.
8.2 Creativity as Ultimate Principle
Creativity is introduced as the ultimate metaphysical principle:
“Creativity is the universal of universals characterizing ultimate matter of fact.”
— Whitehead, Process and Reality (PR, approx. 21–22)
It names the activity by which “the many become one, and are increased by one.” Creativity is:
- Not a divine attribute but the most general feature of reality.
- Impersonal, though instantiated in all actual occasions.
Some theologians and philosophers argue that this elevates creativity above God; others contend that God is the supreme instance of creativity without being identical to it.
8.3 The Category of the Ultimate: Creativity, the Many, the One
The Category of the Ultimate summarizes Whitehead’s metaphysical formula:
“The many become one, and are increased by one.”
Its three terms are:
| Element | Role |
|---|---|
| Creativity | The activity of production of new actual occasions |
| The Many | The multiplicity of data inherited from past actual occasions |
| The One | The unified outcome (a new actual occasion or satisfaction) |
This formula governs every concrescence: each new actual occasion is a “one” arising out of “many” predecessors through creativity.
Philosophers differ in their assessment of the Category’s status. Some regard it as a profound, minimal description of processual reality; others question whether it is more than a suggestive metaphor. Debates also focus on whether the Category implies a kind of process monism (creativity as ultimately one) or a pluralism of many self-constituting occasions structured by a shared ultimate.
9. The Theory of Extensions: Space, Time, and Relativity
9.1 Extensive Connection and Regions
In Part IV, Whitehead develops a theory of extensions to account for space, time, and geometry within his process ontology. Instead of starting from points in a pre-given space-time, he introduces:
- Extensive connection: a network of overlapping and including relations among events.
- Regions: extended sets or volumes arising from these relations.
Space and time are not containers but abstractions from patterns of related actual occasions. Duration, extension, and geometric structures are derived from how occasions are “spread out” and related within nexūs.
9.2 Critique of Simple Location
A central theme is the critique of simple location, the idea that an entity is fully characterized by occupying a point in space-time independently of its relations. Whitehead contends that:
- Physical entities are always relationally constituted; they cannot be “simply located.”
- Classical physics reifies mathematical abstractions into concrete reality, a case of the fallacy of misplaced concreteness.
Supporters argue that this diagnosis anticipates later relational and field-theoretic views. Critics respond that modern physics can often dispense with Whitehead’s metaphysical apparatus while retaining sophisticated spacetime models.
9.3 Relation to Relativity Theory
Whitehead attempts to harmonize his theory with Einstein’s relativity:
| Aspect of Relativity | Whitehead’s Response |
|---|---|
| Spacetime as four-dimensional | Reinterpreted as a high-level abstraction from events |
| Relativity of simultaneity | Connected to the event-based structure of durations |
| Metric structure | Related to patterns of extensive connection |
Whitehead also proposed an alternative physical theory of gravitation elsewhere, but in Process and Reality the focus is on metaphysical interpretation rather than detailed physics.
Assessments differ: some philosophers of science see Whitehead as offering a philosophically rich event ontology compatible with relativity; others argue that changes in physics since 1929, including developments in quantum field theory and cosmology, limit the contemporary applicability of his specific account of extension, even if its general relational orientation remains suggestive.
10. Whitehead’s God: Primordial and Consequent Natures
10.1 Dipolar Conception of God
Part V presents a distinctive, dipolar doctrine of God. God is an actual entity with two inseparable “natures”:
- The primordial nature, related to possibilities.
- The consequent nature, related to actualities.
This conception differs from classical theism (with emphases on immutability and omnipotence) and from deism or pantheism. Process theologians have built extensively on this dipolar model; critics question its coherence and fidelity to religious traditions.
10.2 Primordial Nature: Order of Possibilities
In God’s primordial nature, God envisages the realm of eternal objects and orders them into a graded “conceptual valuation”. This function:
- Provides initial aims for actual occasions—lures toward richer, more harmonious realizations.
- Introduces order and relevance into the otherwise unstructured multiplicity of possibilities.
God in this aspect is “non-temporal” and “free from all the temporal conditions,” yet not wholly abstract, since this ordering has real effects in the world. Some interpreters see this as akin to a Platonic ideal realm personalized in God; others read it as a metaphor for the structured availability of possibilities.
10.3 Consequent Nature: Reception of the World
The consequent nature of God is God’s concrete prehension of every actual occasion:
- God feels the world’s joys, sufferings, and achievements.
- These are preserved in a “divine memory” that harmonizes them into a perfected unity.
- God’s consequent nature grows with the world, making God in some sense temporal and mutable.
This leads to an image of God as deeply affected by creaturely events. Sympathetic theologians highlight the ethical and pastoral implications of a suffering, responsive deity. Critics argue that such a God may lack classical omnipotence or sovereignty, raising questions about worship and trust.
10.4 God and Creativity
Whitehead distinguishes God from creativity, the ultimate category. God is:
- The supreme actual entity, not the ultimate principle as such.
- The one in whom creativity is most fully exemplified.
Debate continues over this relation. Some suggest a quasi‑panentheistic structure (the world “in” God, God “in” the world, both under creativity); others worry that placing God “under” creativity undermines divine ultimacy in a way at odds with much traditional theism.
11. Philosophy of Organism vs. Mechanistic Materialism
11.1 Philosophy of Organism
Whitehead calls his metaphysics the philosophy of organism. Its central claims include:
- The world is composed of interrelated processes (actual occasions), not inert particles.
- Every actual occasion has some degree of experience or subjectivity.
- Relations are internal: what an occasion is depends on how it prehends others.
This stands against views that treat physical reality as fundamentally dead, homogeneous, and externally related.
11.2 Mechanistic Materialism
Mechanistic materialism, as Whitehead portrays it, assumes:
- Reality is ultimately composed of enduring bits of matter moving in space and time.
- Causation is external impact governed by deterministic laws.
- Mind and value are secondary or epiphenomenal.
Whitehead argues that this picture underlies much modern science but misdescribes both scientific practice and lived experience.
11.3 Points of Contrast
| Issue | Philosophy of Organism | Mechanistic Materialism |
|---|---|---|
| Basic units | Actual occasions (events of experience) | Particles or material substances |
| Causation | Internal prehension and self-constitution | External forces and impacts |
| Mind–world relation | Continuum of experience through nature | Sharp dualism or reduction of mind to matter |
| Value | Intrinsic to process and subjectivity | Often seen as projected or subjective |
Whitehead contends that his view better explains:
- The emergence of life and consciousness.
- The integration of physics with biology and psychology.
- The pervasive role of value and purpose in human life.
Critics of the philosophy of organism argue that:
- Its extension of “experience” to all nature collapses important distinctions or becomes metaphorical.
- Contemporary physics can explain complex phenomena without positing experiential occasions.
- The mechanistic picture, suitably updated, remains more parsimonious.
Proponents respond that parsimony should be balanced with explanatory adequacy, especially concerning consciousness, normativity, and relational structure.
12. Famous Passages and Key Doctrinal Formulas
12.1 The Fallacy of Misplaced Concreteness
One of the most cited passages addresses the “fallacy of misplaced concreteness”, the error of treating abstractions as if they were the concrete reality:
“It is an example of what I will call the ‘fallacy of misplaced concreteness.’”
— Whitehead, Process and Reality (PR, around 7–9)
This formula has been influential in critiques of reductive scientism and in environmental philosophy, where it is used to highlight the gap between models and lived reality.
12.2 “The Many Become One, and Are Increased by One”
The Category of the Ultimate is expressed in a memorable aphorism:
“The many become one, and are increased by one.”
This formula encapsulates concrescence: each new actual occasion unifies many past data into one satisfaction, which then joins the many for future concrescences. Commentators often treat this as the most succinct statement of Whitehead’s process metaphysics.
12.3 “The Creative Advance into Novelty”
Whitehead characterizes the cosmos as:
“The creative advance into novelty.”
This phrase articulates the dynamic, open-ended nature of reality. It has been widely quoted in discussions of evolution, creativity, and historical process, including in theological and ecological contexts.
12.4 God as “The Great Companion – The Fellow-Sufferer Who Understands”
Another frequently cited passage describes God’s consequent nature:
“He is the great companion—the fellow-sufferer who understands.”
This line has played a major role in the reception of Process and Reality within process theology, emphasizing divine empathy and relationality. Some theologians applaud this reconfiguration of divine power; others criticize it as departing from classical doctrines of divine impassibility.
12.5 Other Recurrent Formulas
Additional notable expressions include:
- “Philosophy of organism” for his overall system.
- “Drops of experience” for actual occasions.
- “Imaginative generalization” for the speculative method.
These phrases function as entry points for readers and have been adopted, contested, or reinterpreted in subsequent philosophical and theological literature.
13. Influence on Process Theology and Religious Thought
13.1 Emergence of Process Theology
Process and Reality became the foundational text for process theology, particularly in the mid-20th century. Theologians such as Charles Hartshorne, John B. Cobb Jr., and David Ray Griffin adapted Whitehead’s metaphysics to reinterpret key doctrines:
- God as dipolar (both changing and unchanging aspects).
- Divine persuasion rather than coercive omnipotence.
- A deeply relational, responsive God.
These thinkers argue that Whitehead’s framework better accommodates modern science, religious pluralism, and the problem of evil.
13.2 Reinterpretation of Classical Doctrines
Process theologians have used Whitehead’s concepts to revise:
| Doctrine | Process-Theological Reinterpretation |
|---|---|
| Omnipotence | Power as persuasive, not unilateral determinism |
| Providence | God offers initial aims; outcomes depend on creaturely response |
| Creation | No creation ex nihilo; ongoing creation within creativity |
| Immortality | Emphasis on objective immortality in God’s consequent nature |
Supporters claim these revisions make theism more coherent and ethically attractive. Critics argue they depart too far from classical orthodoxy or dilute divine sovereignty.
13.3 Wider Religious and Interfaith Engagements
Beyond Christian theology, Whitehead’s ideas have influenced:
- Jewish process theologians exploring covenant and relationality.
- Buddhist–Christian dialogue, drawing parallels between process thought and impermanence or dependent origination.
- Eco-theology, where the philosophy of organism supports views of the world as an interrelated community of value.
Some scholars in comparative religion see affinities between Whitehead’s processive, relational cosmos and non-Western traditions; others caution against oversimplified syncretism.
13.4 Critiques from Religious Perspectives
Religious critics raise several concerns:
- From classical theism: Whitehead’s God may seem too dependent on the world and lacking in omnipotent control.
- From more secular theology: his metaphysical apparatus is seen as speculative and unnecessary for religious practice.
- From some liberation and political theologians: process theology is sometimes judged insufficiently attentive to structural injustice, though others attempt to integrate process categories with liberationist concerns.
Despite such debates, Process and Reality remains a central reference point in 20th‑ and 21st‑century constructive theology and philosophy of religion.
14. Critical Reception and Major Objections
14.1 Contemporary Reception
At its publication in 1929, Process and Reality received respectful but limited attention. Many philosophers found the work’s density and technical vocabulary daunting, especially amid the rise of logical positivism and ordinary language philosophy. The book gained more traction among theologians and metaphysically inclined philosophers than within the emerging analytic mainstream.
14.2 Objections to Method and Style
Common criticisms include:
- Obscurity and complexity: Whitehead’s idiosyncratic terminology (e.g., “prehension,” “concrescence”) and long, intricate sentences are said to impede clear evaluation.
- Speculative metaphysics: Logical empiricists and many analytic philosophers have regarded the project as reviving a discredited style of system-building.
Defenders respond that the ambition of rethinking basic categories justifies a novel vocabulary and that all metaphysical frameworks rely on speculative elements, even if tacit.
14.3 Substantive Philosophical Criticisms
Major substantive objections involve:
| Area | Typical Critical Concerns |
|---|---|
| Panexperientialism | Attributing experience to all occasions is seen as implausible or metaphorical |
| Eternal objects | Viewed as an unnecessary, quasi‑Platonic realm of forms |
| Theory of God | Criticized both by classical theists and secular philosophers |
| Causation and prehension | Questioned for lack of clear testability or precise formalization |
Some philosophers argue that Whitehead’s system fails to meet its own standards of coherence; others contend that particular doctrines, such as the relation between God and creativity, remain ambiguous.
14.4 Scientific and Empirical Concerns
Philosophers of science and physicists have raised issues about:
- Whitehead’s reliance on early 20th‑century physics, some of which has been superseded.
- The lack of detailed integration with later developments in quantum field theory, cosmology, or neuroscience.
Supporters maintain that Whitehead’s event ontology and critique of simple location remain relevant, even if specific scientific assumptions need updating. Critics regard the gap between his categories and current physics as a reason to adopt more modest metaphysical frameworks.
14.5 Evaluative Divergence
Overall, reception has been polarized:
- Some view Process and Reality as one of the most significant metaphysical systems of the 20th century.
- Others see it as an ingenious but ultimately unpersuasive or opaque attempt at system-building.
This divergence continues to shape ongoing scholarship, with renewed interest arising in contexts such as philosophy of mind, environmental ethics, and science–religion dialogue.
15. Legacy and Historical Significance
15.1 Impact on Philosophy
Process and Reality has become the cornerstone of process philosophy, influencing thinkers in metaphysics, philosophy of mind, and environmental philosophy. Its legacy includes:
- Development of panexperientialist and event-based ontologies.
- Renewed interest in relational metaphysics, internal relations, and non-substance-based accounts of identity.
- Contributions to debates over the nature of consciousness, causation, and emergence.
While not central to mainstream analytic philosophy, Whitehead’s ideas have intersected with later work on structural realism, neutral monism, and holistic interpretations of science.
15.2 Influence beyond Philosophy
Beyond academic philosophy, Process and Reality has had notable effects in:
| Field | Aspects Influenced |
|---|---|
| Theology and religion | Process theology, open theism, eco-theology |
| Environmental thought | Conceptions of nature as a community of interrelated value-bearers |
| Education and ethics | Emphasis on creativity, relationality, and value |
| Science–religion dialogue | Frameworks for integrating scientific and religious perspectives |
Writers like John B. Cobb Jr. and Isabelle Stengers have helped translate Whiteheadian ideas into broader cultural and interdisciplinary conversations.
15.3 Continuing Debates and Reassessments
In recent decades, there has been renewed interest in Process and Reality in light of:
- Ongoing challenges in explaining consciousness and agency within physicalist paradigms.
- Ecological crises prompting holistic and relational views of nature.
- Conversations between continental and analytic traditions, where Whitehead sometimes functions as a bridge figure.
Some contemporary philosophers and theologians advocate “updating” Whitehead’s system to align with current science and philosophical concerns, while others prefer to mine his work selectively for concepts (such as creativity, event, relation) without endorsing the full scheme.
15.4 Place in 20th-Century Thought
Within the landscape of 20th‑century philosophy, Process and Reality is often positioned as:
- A major alternative to both logical empiricism and phenomenology, though it intersects with each.
- One of the last grand systematic metaphysical treatises, comparable in ambition to classical works but shaped by modern science.
Its historical significance lies partly in its role as a counter-tradition: even where Whitehead’s specific doctrines are rejected, his attempt to articulate an explicitly processive, relational, and value-laden metaphysics continues to inform debates about what metaphysics after modern science might be.
Study Guide
specialistProcess and Reality is one of the most technically demanding works in 20th‑century metaphysics. It introduces a dense vocabulary (prehension, concrescence, eternal object), assumes comfort with abstract argument, and constantly cross‑references its own categoreal scheme. Most readers benefit from prior study of metaphysics and the use of commentaries or guides.
Actual Occasion (Actual Entity)
The fundamental unit of reality in Whitehead’s system: a momentary event or “drop of experience” that arises, integrates inherited data, achieves a determinate satisfaction, and then perishes.
Prehension
The basic mode of relatedness whereby an actual occasion “feels” or takes account of other occasions or eternal objects, either positively (including) or negatively (excluding), with a specific subjective form.
Concrescence
The internal process by which an actual occasion comes into being—the many data it inherits are unified into a single subject that culminates in a satisfaction.
Eternal Object
A pure possibility or form of definiteness (such as a color, shape, or mathematical structure) that can ingress into actual occasions and give them qualitative character.
Creativity and the Category of the Ultimate
Creativity is the ultimate metaphysical principle signifying the production of new actual occasions; the Category of the Ultimate is summarized in the formula “The many become one, and are increased by one,” involving creativity, the many, and the one.
Philosophy of Organism
Whitehead’s name for his metaphysics, which treats the world as an interconnected field of organic, experiential processes rather than inert, externally related substances.
Primordial and Consequent Natures of God
The two inseparable aspects of God: the primordial nature, which orders and envisages all eternal objects and provides initial aims; and the consequent nature, which prehends and preserves all actual occasions as a growing, sympathetic experience.
Fallacy of Misplaced Concreteness and Simple Location
The fallacy of misplaced concreteness is the error of treating abstractions (such as mathematical space-time or simple location) as if they were the concrete fullness of reality. Simple location is the idea that an entity is fully described by a point in space-time independently of its relations.
How does Whitehead’s conception of an actual occasion challenge traditional notions of substance, and what implications does this have for our understanding of enduring objects like persons or physical bodies?
In what ways does the Category of the Ultimate—“The many become one, and are increased by one”—summarize Whitehead’s overall metaphysical scheme?
Evaluate Whitehead’s critique of the fallacy of misplaced concreteness. Is it a fair diagnosis of how scientific abstractions are often treated, and how might it apply to contemporary debates in philosophy of science?
What are the main differences between Whitehead’s philosophy of organism and mechanistic materialism in their accounts of causation and value?
How does Whitehead’s dipolar conception of God (primordial and consequent natures) attempt to reconcile divine transcendence with divine responsiveness to the world?
Do you find Whitehead’s extension of experience (panexperientialism) to all actual occasions philosophically defensible, or does it stretch the notion of experience beyond usefulness?
In what respects can Whitehead’s event-based theory of extension be seen as compatible with, or resistant to, relativity theory and later developments in physics?
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title = {process-and-reality-an-essay-in-cosmology},
author = {Philopedia},
year = {2025},
url = {https://philopedia.com/works/process-and-reality-an-essay-in-cosmology/},
urldate = {December 11, 2025}
}