The Courage to Be is Paul Tillich’s classic analysis of existential anxiety, the threat of nonbeing, and the possibility of courage grounded in what he calls the “God above God.” Drawing on existential philosophy, psychoanalysis, and Christian theology, Tillich distinguishes types of anxiety (fate and death, guilt and condemnation, emptiness and meaninglessness) and analyzes corresponding forms of courage (self-affirmation of the individual and of participation in community). He argues that modern humanity is especially marked by the anxiety of meaninglessness, which neither traditional theism nor secular humanism adequately resolves. Ultimately, Tillich contends that authentic courage to be arises from accepting one’s participation in Being-itself, a non-objectifying understanding of God that both affirms and transcends finite existence and classical theism.
At a Glance
- Author
- Paul Tillich
- Composed
- 1950–1952
- Language
- English
- Status
- original survives
- •Courage as self-affirmation in spite of nonbeing: Tillich defines courage fundamentally as the ethical and ontological self-affirmation of one’s being in the face of nonbeing—threats such as death, guilt, and meaninglessness. This courage is not mere psychological boldness, but an existential stance that integrates awareness of finitude with an affirmation of life.
- •Threefold structure of existential anxiety: Tillich argues that human existence is pervaded by three basic forms of anxiety—anxiety of fate and death, anxiety of guilt and condemnation, and anxiety of emptiness and meaninglessness. Each historical epoch tends to accentuate one of these, and each gives rise to characteristic forms of neurosis, religion, and social organization.
- •Types of courage: individualization and participation: The work differentiates between the courage to be as an individual (affirming one’s unique self against conformist pressure or collective demands) and the courage to be as a part (affirming one’s belonging and participation in larger communities and structures of meaning). Authentic courage integrates both, avoiding both atomistic individualism and depersonalizing collectivism.
- •Critique of heteronomous and autonomous solutions: Tillich criticizes traditional authoritarian religion (heteronomy) for suppressing personal freedom and honest confrontation with doubt, and he criticizes purely autonomous humanism for lacking resources to conquer radical anxiety, especially the anxiety of meaninglessness. Both fail when confronted with the depth of nonbeing revealed by modern existential thought.
- •Ground of courage in the “God above God” and Being-itself: Tillich maintains that genuine courage to be is possible only through participation in the “power of being” that transcends finite beings. This is symbolized by the “God above God,” a non-objective, non-idolatrous conception of God as Being-itself or the ground of being. Faith, in this sense, is the state of being ultimately concerned—a trust in the power of being that can accept doubt and despair without being destroyed by them.
The book has become a classic of twentieth-century theology and religious existentialism, influential in Protestant theology, psychology of religion, and pastoral counseling. Its concepts of existential anxiety, ultimate concern, and the God above God shaped later debates about the nature of faith and secularization. The Courage to Be helped introduce continental existential thought to Anglophone religious audiences and remains a touchstone in discussions of faith and doubt, mental health, and the search for meaning in modernity.
1. Introduction
The Courage to Be is a 1952 philosophical–theological treatise by Paul Tillich that examines how human beings affirm their existence in the face of radical finitude, anxiety, and the threat of nonbeing. Positioned between academic theology and wider intellectual culture, the book seeks to articulate a concept of courage that does not deny the depth of doubt, guilt, and despair but incorporates them into an existential “yes” to life.
Tillich frames his analysis through his method of correlation, relating existential questions to theological symbols. The work draws on existential philosophy (notably Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Heidegger, and Sartre), depth psychology, and Christian theology. It focuses on how different historical periods have been characterized by distinctive forms of anxiety—fate and death, guilt and condemnation, emptiness and meaninglessness—and how corresponding forms of courage have arisen.
A central concern is what Tillich views as the specifically modern experience of meaninglessness, which he argues neither traditional religious authority nor purely secular humanism adequately resolves. He introduces the notions of Being‑itself and the “God above God” as ways of rethinking faith beyond both naïve theism and atheistic rejection, grounding a form of courage that can endure the full awareness of nonbeing.
2. Historical Context
2.1 Postwar Intellectual Climate
The Courage to Be emerged in the early Cold War era, a period marked by reflections on totalitarianism, the Holocaust, nuclear threat, and widespread disillusionment with older certainties. Many intellectuals interpreted these events through existential categories of anxiety, absurdity, and alienation.
| Contextual Factor | Relevance to The Courage to Be |
|---|---|
| World War II and the Holocaust | Intensified concern with radical evil, guilt, and the fragility of civilization. |
| Cold War and nuclear threat | Highlighted anxiety of fate and death on a global scale. |
| Secularization and “death of God” debates | Raised questions of meaninglessness and the viability of traditional theism. |
| Rise of psychotherapy | Brought anxiety, neurosis, and selfhood into public discourse. |
2.2 Existentialism and Theology
Tillich was engaging the widespread reception of European existentialism in the United States. Philosophers such as Heidegger and Sartre analyzed being, nothingness, and authenticity, while theologians like Karl Barth and Rudolf Bultmann reinterpreted Christian doctrine in light of modern historical and existential criticism.
Proponents of “neo‑orthodox” theology emphasized divine transcendence over culture; liberal Protestants stressed religious experience and ethics. Tillich’s book is often placed between these currents, correlating existential analysis with theological symbols while avoiding both confessional exclusivism and purely secular philosophy.
3. Author and Composition
3.1 Paul Tillich’s Background
Paul Tillich (1886–1965) was a German‑American Protestant theologian and philosopher, educated in both theology and philosophy in Germany. He served as a chaplain in World War I, taught at German universities, and was dismissed from his post by the Nazi regime in 1933. He then emigrated to the United States, teaching at Union Theological Seminary, Harvard, and later the University of Chicago.
His earlier works developed a theology of culture and a systematic theology using the method of correlation. The Courage to Be belongs to his mature American period and is often seen as a bridge between his academic system and a broader educated readership.
3.2 Genesis in the Terry Lectures
The book grew out of Tillich’s 1950 Terry Foundation Lectures on Religion in the Light of Science and Philosophy at Yale University. He significantly revised and expanded the lectures into a coherent volume, published by Yale University Press in 1952.
| Stage | Description |
|---|---|
| 1950 | Delivery of Terry Lectures at Yale. |
| 1950–1952 | Expansion, reorganization, and integration of lecture materials. |
| 1952 | First publication of The Courage to Be in the Terry Lectures series. |
Scholars note that the lecture origin helps explain the book’s relatively accessible style and its frequent engagement with contemporary psychology and philosophy. The dedication to his wife Hannah underlines, for some interpreters, the personal as well as academic stakes of Tillich’s reflections on anxiety and courage.
4. Structure and Organization
Tillich organizes The Courage to Be into an introduction, three major parts, and a brief conclusion. The architecture reflects a movement from conceptual groundwork, through historical and typological analysis of anxiety, to explicitly theological interpretation.
| Section | Focus | Main Content |
|---|---|---|
| Introduction | Problem-setting | Being, nonbeing, anxiety; methodological remarks. |
| Part I: “Being and Courage” | Ontological framework | Nature of being, selfhood, and basic forms of courage. |
| Part II: “The Self-Affirmation of Being in Spite of the Fact of Nonbeing” | Typology and history | Three types of anxiety and corresponding historical epochs and responses. |
| Part III: “The Courage to Be as the Self-Affirmation of Being in Spite of the Fact of Nonbeing” | Theological solutions | Heteronomy, autonomy, theonomy, and courage grounded in Being-itself. |
| Conclusion | Thematic synthesis | Clarification of the meaning and implications of courage. |
4.1 Progressive Focus
- The Introduction sets out the problem of anxiety and the need to clarify “courage.”
- Part I defines courage as self‑affirmation in spite of nonbeing, distinguishes the courage “to be as oneself” and “to be as a part,” and introduces basic ontological categories.
- Part II analyzes historical constellations of anxiety and shows how neuroses, ideologies, and religious forms serve as attempted answers.
- Part III turns to faith, the “power of being,” and the “God above God” as symbols for a courage that can integrate doubt and despair.
This progression underpins later interpretive debates about whether the work is primarily a philosophical anthropology or a theological apologetic.
5. Central Arguments and Key Concepts
5.1 Courage and Nonbeing
The core claim is that courage is the self‑affirmation of one’s being in spite of the threat of nonbeing. Nonbeing appears not only as physical death but also as guilt, condemnation, emptiness, and meaninglessness. Courage is thus an ontological and existential stance rather than mere emotional boldness.
Tillich distinguishes between:
| Concept | Brief Description |
|---|---|
| Courage to be as a part | Affirmation of self through participation in community, tradition, or collective structures. |
| Courage to be as oneself | Affirmation of individual uniqueness over against conformity or depersonalizing systems. |
He argues that authentic courage integrates both dimensions, avoiding both atomistic individualism and totalizing collectivism.
5.2 Threefold Anxiety
Tillich posits three main forms of existential anxiety:
- Fate and death
- Guilt and condemnation
- Emptiness and meaninglessness
He correlates these with different historical epochs, suggesting that the modern era is dominated by anxiety of meaninglessness. Some commentators support this diagnosis with reference to secularization and loss of shared narratives; others question its cultural generality.
5.3 Being-itself and the “God above God”
A further key argument is that human resources alone cannot finally overcome radical anxiety. Tillich introduces Being‑itself, understood as the ground and power of being in which all finite beings participate, and the symbol of the “God above God”, which points beyond specific images of a personal deity.
“The courage to be is rooted in the God who appears when God has disappeared in the anxiety of doubt.”
— Paul Tillich, The Courage to Be
Proponents interpret this as enabling a form of faith that can accept doubt and the critique of traditional theism. Critics contend that such a concept risks reducing God to an abstract principle and weakening the personal and historical dimensions of religious belief.
6. Legacy and Historical Significance
6.1 Impact on Theology, Philosophy, and Psychology
The Courage to Be quickly became one of Tillich’s most widely read works and is frequently cited as a classic of 20th‑century religious existentialism. It has been influential in:
| Field | Aspects of Influence |
|---|---|
| Protestant theology | Discussions of faith, doubt, secularization, and the “God above God.” |
| Philosophy of religion | Debates over non‑theistic conceptions of God and the nature of existential anxiety. |
| Psychology and pastoral care | Interpretations of anxiety, neurosis, and the therapeutic value of meaning and courage. |
Many theologians and counselors have drawn on Tillich’s distinctions between fear and anxiety, and on his reframing of faith as “ultimate concern,” for both academic and practical work.
6.2 Reception and Ongoing Debates
Enthusiasts regard the book as a pioneering attempt to address modern secular anxiety without retreating to either rigid dogmatism or reductive naturalism. They highlight its integrative approach to philosophy, theology, and psychology.
Critics argue that Tillich’s categories are culturally limited, shaped by Western, male, and largely middle‑class experiences; liberation and political theologians contend that he insufficiently addresses concrete structures of oppression. Others question whether “Being‑itself” is compatible with historic Christian doctrines or whether the threefold typology of anxiety oversimplifies diverse human experiences.
Despite such disputes, The Courage to Be continues to be taught and discussed in theology, religious studies, and philosophy, serving as a key reference point in conversations about meaning, secularization, and the possibility of faith amid pervasive doubt.
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title = {the-courage-to-be},
author = {Philopedia},
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urldate = {December 11, 2025}
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