Works of Love

1. Introduction

Works of Love (Kjerlighedens Gjerninger, 1847) is a Christian‑ethical treatise by Søren Kierkegaard that examines what it means to love in light of the New Testament command to “love your neighbor as yourself.” Written under his own name rather than a pseudonym, it is commonly regarded as a centerpiece of his explicitly Christian “second authorship.”

The book does not present a systematic moral theory in the modern academic sense. Instead, it offers a series of “Christian deliberations” that address the single reader before God, exploring how love should shape everyday relationships. Kierkegaard distinguishes Christian neighbor‑love (universal, commanded, grounded in God’s love) from preferential loves such as erotic love and friendship, and he investigates how love’s authenticity is tested in hidden motives, ordinary duties, and concrete deeds.

Scholars typically situate Works of Love at the intersection of philosophy, theology, and spirituality: it is read both as a contribution to Christian ethics and as an existential reflection on what it means to live responsibly toward others. Its arguments have been influential in debates about agape, forgiveness, and moral obligation, while also provoking criticism for their rigor, individualism, and potential implications for social and political issues.

2. Historical and Theological Context

2.1 Nineteenth‑Century Denmark and “Christendom”

Works of Love emerged in 1840s Copenhagen, a Lutheran state church culture in which baptism, church membership, and civil identity largely coincided. Kierkegaard portrays this environment as “Christendom”: a socially established, largely unreflective Christianity. Many interpreters argue that the book’s strict account of neighbor‑love responds to what Kierkegaard saw as complacent bourgeois religiosity and sentimental notions of love.

2.2 Lutheran and Biblical Background

The work is deeply shaped by Lutheran piety and by intensive engagement with Scripture, especially:

Theologically, many scholars see Kierkegaard as radicalizing Lutheran emphases on grace, faith, and vocation into a rigorous ethic of love as divine command.

2.3 Intellectual Milieu

Kierkegaard wrote against the backdrop of post‑Kantian idealism and Romanticism:

Some scholars emphasize continuity with earlier Christian thinkers (Augustine, Luther), while others stress Kierkegaard’s originality in combining a divine‑command view of ethics with an existential focus on the single individual before God.

3. Author and Composition of Works of Love

3.1 Kierkegaard’s Position in His Authorship

Works of Love belongs to Kierkegaard’s “second authorship,” following a series of pseudonymous works culminating in Concluding Unscientific Postscript (1846). Whereas the pseudonymous texts explore aesthetic, ethical, and religious existence indirectly, Works of Love is signed with Kierkegaard’s own name and addresses Christianity directly. Many commentators interpret this shift as part of his move from analyzing the stages of life to articulating Christian existence itself.

3.2 Dating and Genesis

Kierkegaard appears to have composed Works of Love between late 1846 and 1847. Surviving journals and notebooks (now in Søren Kierkegaards Skrifter, SKS) indicate sustained reflection on New Testament love and on contemporary Danish church life during this period. Scholars generally agree that earlier concerns—such as his broken engagement, critiques of Hegelianism, and conflicts with the press—form part of the psychological and polemical backdrop, though their precise influence remains debated.

3.3 Publication and Intended Audience

First published in Copenhagen in 1847, the book is framed as upbuilding discourses aimed at “the single individual.” Kierkegaard expressly disavows speaking as a systematic theologian or ecclesiastical authority, describing himself instead as a fellow Christian seeking edification. Commentators note that, despite this modest stance, the work implicitly challenges established church attitudes and middle‑class ideals of love prevalent in his milieu.

4. Structure and Organization of the Treatise

4.1 Macro‑Structure

The treatise is organized as a preface followed by two main parts, sometimes capped by what later editors call a concluding perspective:

4.2 Discoursive Form

Rather than chapters in a treatise, Kierkegaard offers discourse‑like essays, each built around a biblical text or phrase. Part I establishes basic concepts: the nature of neighbor‑love, its universality, its status as duty, and love’s hidden inwardness. Part II then examines particular qualities and practices of love—such as not seeking its own, or recollecting the dead—often in direct exegesis of 1 Corinthians 13.

The sequence has often been read as moving:

1. From definition (what love is),
2. To manifestation (how love appears in deeds).

Interpreters differ on how systematic this progression is: some see a carefully ordered ethical treatise; others emphasize the homiletic, meditative character, in which themes are revisited rather than linearly developed.

5. Central Arguments and Ethical Themes

5.1 Love as Commanded Duty

A central argument is that Christian love is a duty grounded in God’s prior love, not a spontaneous feeling. Kierkegaard interprets the New Testament command to love the neighbor as binding regardless of inclination. Proponents of a “divine‑command” reading highlight how this undergirds moral constancy; critics suggest it risks portraying love as externally imposed and emotionally thin.

5.2 Neighbor‑Love and Preferential Loves

The treatise sharply distinguishes neighbor‑love—universal, egalitarian—from preferential loves such as erotic love and friendship. Kierkegaard contends that the neighbor is “every human being,” so the command undermines partiality based on affinity or social status. Many commentators argue that he aims to transform, not abolish, special loves by subjecting them to the standard of neighbor‑love; others worry that deep attachments become morally suspect or precarious.

5.3 Hiddenness and Works of Love

Another major theme is that love is known by its works rather than by inner sentiment or verbal protestations. Love is often hidden, seen fully only by God, yet it must bear “fruits” in action. This double emphasis has been read as combating both sentimentalism (mere feeling) and showy moralism (public display).

5.4 Forgiveness, Patience, and Endurance

Part II argues that forgiveness, mercy, patience, and the overcoming of resentment are paradigmatic “works of love.” Kierkegaard maintains that love believes and hopes all things without becoming naïve, and that remembrance of offense can be transformed through forgiveness. Admirers see here a rich account of reconciliation and moral perseverance; feminist and liberationist critics question whether such emphases may unintentionally encourage acceptance of injustice or self‑erasure by the oppressed.

6. Key Concepts, Famous Passages, and Legacy

6.1 Key Concepts

These notions structure much later discussion of Christian ethics and the philosophy of love.

6.2 Notable Passages

Scholars frequently cite:

• The exposition of the neighbor command as a “middle term” that unites self and other without collapsing their difference.
• The discourse on “Love’s Hidden Life and Its Recognizability by Its Fruits,” emphasizing inwardness and action.
• The treatment of “Love builds up” (1 Corinthians 8:1), contrasting knowledge that puffs up with love that edifies.
• The paired meditations “Love believes all things—and yet is never deceived” and “Love hopes all things—and yet is never put to shame.”
• The reflection on “recollecting one who is dead,” linking love, memory, and forgiveness.

6.3 Legacy and Interpretive Trajectories

Works of Love has significantly influenced:

While widely admired for its depth, the work also provokes ongoing debates about individualism, the treatment of eros and friendship, and the adequacy of its social and political implications, ensuring a continuing and diverse reception.